The Problems of Philosophy - Chapter 10

(Originally written September 23, 2005 in Book 2)

The Problems of Philosophy
Bertrand Russell 1912


The difference betwee an a priori general proposition and an empirical general proposition is not in the meaning, but in the evidence for it.


Chapter 10 - On our knowledge of universals

It is possible to know universals in three ways:
1) by acquaintance
2) by description
3) by neither acquaintance nor description

By seeing a particular with an attribute (i.e. color) we have acquaintance with the particular's color. By seeing many particulars with a specific color we abstract that color from the particulars to become acquainted with the universal of that color.

The easiest form of relations (universals) to comprehend are those which relate to parts of sense-datum.

Another relation known is before and after in time.

Another relation known is resemblance or similarity.

"All a priori knowledge deals exclusively with relations of universals" (Russell, 103).

In my margins I wrote "Our knowledge of God is a priori knowledge"

When we apply our a priori knowledge to a particular case we must have an empirical knowledge as well.


Empirical evidence consists of particular cases.

Two forms of knowledge:

1) Knowledge of things
2) Knowledge of Truths

Knowledge of things:
1. acquaintance: immediate knowledge 
 A. particulars 
   i. with sense data
   ii. with ourselves (probably)
 B. Universals
  i. sensible qualities
  ii. relations of space and time
  iii. similarity
  iv. certain abstractions (logical universals)
 2. Description
  - involves both acquaintance with something and a knowledge of truths

Knowledge of Truths:
 1. intuitive knowledge 
   A. Self-evident truths
     i. abstract logical and mathematical principles
     ii. some ethical propositions
 2. The secondary (derivative) form
  - everything that can be deduced from self-evident truths by the use of self-evident principles of deduction