(Originally written April 11, 2007 in book 15)
Chapter 4 - Morality & Guilt
Some fundamental distinctions
There are many moral concepts that are universal to all religions.
Duties in Religion
1. Moral Norms
2. Religious Norms
A. Obligatory Actions
B. Ritual avoidances
i. Defilement of self
ii. Defilement of the Holy
The Common Core
There are similarities in moral codes from religion to religion, but upon closer examination they can be seriously different.
Some principles may seem similar like Thou Shall Not Kill of Judaism & Christianity and the principle of ahimsa - the 10 precepts of Buddhism. But, "Thou shall not kill" means do not murder, while ahimsa is no harming of life whatsoever.
Other principles are completely contrary from religion to religion. The second commandment, "Thou shall not bow down before any graven images" is contrary to the statues of Buddhas, an integral part of Buddhism. Ahimsa is contrary to the animal sacrifice of the Old Testament.
Religious and ethical considerations go hand in hand. An ethical concept of a religion cannot be isolated from the overall context of that religion.
The Ceremonial Dimension
Sin and defilement are very different. Sin (a breaking of a moral rule) involves intent, whereas defilement (a breaking of a ceremonial rule) completely disregards intent.
Moral, religious, and ceremonial concepts can be isolated only in theory. In practice they work hand in hand and no such distinction is found among practitioners.
Case in point: Christianity
Christianity is not an ethical religion like Judaism or Islam. It is a redemptive religion The heart of Christianity is not its moral code (it does have one) but a historical event leading to the salvation of men.
The Law within Christianity operates in a few ways:
1) It governs life so that life is actually livable.
2) It functions as a "schoolmaster" (Galatians 3:24). It prepares us for adoption into God's family. It shows us that we are incapable of earning admittance into God's family and that we can enter only by Grace.
3) The keeping of the law is only possible via the regenerative work of the Holy Spirit.
"Christian ethics apart from a Christian supernatural setting is pointless" (Corduan, 88).
Christian religion and Christian ethics are utterly and wholly intertwined. Without the theological underpinnings of Christianity all that is left is an impossible moral code.
From its inception Christianity ahas been against many of the ritual prohibitions that were integral parts of Jewish and Gentile societies.
The only occurrence of ceremonial purity in the New Testament is Paul's admonishment of the Corinthians' treatment of the Lord's supper (1 Corinthians 11:17-34).
Corduan believes that this admonition is not so much a command for personal holiness prior to partaking of Communion, but a mandate to understand communion correctly and to treat it with proper respect. Linehan feels that this is a ceremonial purity issue right now (subject to change of course).
Side not: It may not be a call to become personally holy before partaking communion because that would in fact deny the nature of communion, but a more inner ceremonial purity in being ready to partake of communion. As for what communion is I am not ready to give it the Catholic transubstantiation status, but neither do I want to reduce it to a mere remembrance of the event. I think it is a true partaking of something holy and not merely a remembrance of something holy.
In various aspects of Christendom throughout history some ceremonial purity has emerged, but is not a part of the New Testament.
Ethics in the religious universe
Judaism & Islam have similar ethical codes.
Judaism has a longer history and a much more detailed set of codes.
The moral codes function differently in Islam and Judaism. Adherence to the moral code in Judaism is an expression of the relationship between the Jew and YHWH whereas adherence to the moral code in Islam is the way to enter Heaven for the Muslim.
The standards of Judaism also apply solely to the Jews whereas the moral codes of Islam we taken as universally binding.
Zoroastrianism's moral code is similar to Islamic & Jewish codes. All three were revealed by God to a prophet (Zoroastrianism - Zoroaster, Islam - Muhammad, Judaism - Moses).
Zoroastrianism however is preoccupied with ceremonial purity more than ethical obligations.
In Indic religions (Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism) there is a two-tiered arrangement. Monks have stricter codes than the laity.
The Hindu code is hinged on the caste system. All ethical and moral obligations are tied to one's caste.
Hinduism also has duties associated with stages of life.
A man must become a sannyasin and renounce everything, his name, his family, his caste, etc. in order to achieve moksha (release, liberation).
The monks in Buddhism and Jainism are the only ones capable of release from the cycle of reincarnation. The laity can work to have a better rebirth, but cannot achieve nirvana.
Jainism is harshly ascetic. Eventually a monk will starve himself to achieve his goal.
Buddhism considers itself the "middle way" and is not as ascetic as Jainism.
Buddhism teaches that harsh asceticism can be a hinderance to spiritual enlightenment.
Confucianism is above all else a code of behavior.
Confucianism came to exist within other religions (Daoism/Buddhism in China, Shinto in Japan), not along side it.
Confucianism focuses on human behavior and teaches that proper individual behavior will alleviate societal problems.
Confucianism does not possess within itself any religious doctrine.
Violations and their Consequences
There are two major trajectories in the world's religions:
1) Western/Abrahamic Traditions
- Judaism
- Zoroastrianism
- Islam
- Baha'i
- Christianity
2) Eastern/Indic Traditions
- Hinduism
- Buddhism
- Jainism
- Sikhism
- Daoism
These two groups differ radically on the conception of sin.
In Abrahamic religions sin is an offending of God and breaking the human-God relationship.
In Indic religion sin is a negative Karmic effect.
God is the source of moral rules in monotheistic traditions.
The character of moral law is prescriptive and proscriptive, not descriptive in Abrahamic traditions.
Punishment occurs after sin in the West. It could be a warning, salutary, or be a making of an example out of the person.
Punitive action results out of a decree of a personal God. A personal God can also provide mercy or grace to the sinner.
Sin in the Indic traditions is similar to breaking a natural law.
Indic religions have the concept of Karma, which is not tied to a personal God.
In Hinduism, Karma is tied to Samsara, the cycle of rebirths. One's present life is the result of one's previous life.
Karma is not deterministic or fatalistic in Hinduism. One controls one's karma.
Karma is automated in Hinduism. It is not (usually) a judgment passed by a deity.
Karma is negative and pessimistic. It is viewed as perpetual suffering.
The goal of Hinduism is not to accumulate good karma, but to escape the samsara cycle.
There can be a divine intervention in samsara and karma. This is what the Bhagavad Gita tells Hindus.
The negative aspect of karma is even more noticeable in Buddhism and Jainism.
Buddha taught that there is no individual soul and that each person's an aggregate of effects.
Good karma in Buddhism is karma nonetheless and must be balanced out in another life. The goal is to have no karma at all.
In Jainism, Karma is a dust that accumulates on one's soul.
Only a complet abnégation of life leads to release from samsara.
The goal of a Jain monk is to do nothing and to starve himself to death.
Sin belongs within the framework of a system with a personal God. Karma fits into a framework without a personal deity much better.
Christianity alone possesses the notion of "original sin". At first blush this can appear similar to karma in that everyone is born into a state of condemnation through no fault of our own.
The major misunderstanding with original sin is to tie it to finitude. Our finitude makes it impossible not to sin is a common erroneous belief.
Christ proved that human being can live a sinless life.
Original Sin describes the broken relationship between man and God, not the introduction of finitude.
Healing the Breach
Ronal M. Green distinguishes between four senses of reason
1) Theoretical reason - our conceptualization of the world around us
2) Prudential reason - our capacity for living successfully in the world as we understand it
3) Moral reason - places our priorities in order
4) Religious reason - attempts to reconcile the conflict between prudential and moral reason
Response to the World Parliament Statement
Only the most minimal code seems to be fairly universal (truth-property-life-sex) and even these must not be abstracted from their religious context lest they become equivocations and meaningless.
The statement, originally by Hans Küng calls for an end to prejudice and hate. This is all well and good unless it denies objective truth on matters like abortion and homosexuality. Many Christians are labeled as bigots for their stances on these issues.
Likewise, Küng demands that religions denounce their fundamentalists because they deny peace among religions and without religious peace there can be no world peace. But this world be a denouncement of objective truth on many vital issues.
The 1997 Declaration of a Global Ethic affirms an universal moral code and locates it where it ought to be, within a religious context. But, it does not give any implementation strategy and leave evangelical Christians in a place where they cannot agree with it without giving away too much.
Showing posts with label Confucius. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Confucius. Show all posts
Wednesday, April 11, 2007
Original Monotheism, Special Revelation and other Scriptures
(Originally written April 11, 2007 in Book 15)
Subsequent Reaction to Schmidt & Original Monotheism
Whether or not one accepts Schmidt's theory it is no longer possible to strictly adhere to an evolutionary theory of religion in light of Schmidt's anthropological evidence.
The most common reaction to Schmidt is to reject his conclusions on an idealogical basis.
Joseph M. Kitasawa claims that while historical evidence is good in the origin theory, any religion's origin is ultimately answerable with metaphysical answers.
Others, like many post-modernists, including David Adams Leeming, claim that religion arises out of a specific social context. Historical investigation is wholly absent from this type of analysis.
Raffaele Pettazzoni attempts to bridge the gap of extreme historistic theories and purely a historical phenomenology. He gave history its due place, but did not draw such strong conclusions as Schmidt.
Pettazzoni maintained that the Supreme god of primitive cultures did not constitute monotheistic religion because that god was a creator and sustainer god, but a remote god nonetheless. He argued that only reform from polytheism could lead to true monotheism.
Summary
There is good reason to believe that religion began with the awareness of a single, creator God.
The God of original monotheism is identical to the God of Scripture in his basic attributes.
The persistence of monotheism can be attributed to the historical continuity with the awareness of God by the first human beings and its reinforcement in general revelation.
General revelation has two dimensions:
1) An intuitive one
2) A rational one
Both yield:
1) Knowledge of the existence of God
2) Knowledge of God's attributes
3) Knowledge of a fundamental moral sense
Chapter 3 - Special Revelation and Non-Christian Scriptures
Christianity maintains that special revelation is located in the Old Testament and New Testament, as well as in Jesus Christ himself.
There are many non-Christian scriptures, but the nature of Scripture is radically different in each religion.
Corduan's "The Protestant Fallacy" is reading other religions' scriptures as one would read the Christian Scriptures. Since scriptural nature varies from religion to religion there can be no single way of reading or regarding Scriptures. One cannot assume the role of Scripture in any religion is identical to the role of Scripture in Christianity.
The Protestant Fallacy
Classical Protestantism holds that the Bible is the literal Word of God and thus, the text is inspired by God.
Protestantism asserts "sola scriptura". That is, there is no other source for propositional revelation other than the Bible.
Protestant Christianity is an "extremely book-bound form of religion" (Corduan, 57-58).
Protestant Christianity stands or falls by Scriptural assertions.
The Protestant fallacy is applying this "sola scriptura" mentality (which is appropriate for the Bible) to other religion's scriptures.
Judaism: The Deuterocanon as key to the Canon
The Protestant fallacy manifests itself when one assumes that to understand Judaism one must simply study the Old Testament.
This can lead to assertions like, "since the Jews no longer perform the ritual sacrifices they are required by their own scriptures, Judaism is internally incoherent".
The Scriptures of Judaism are identical with the Old Testament Canon of Christianity. These books are known in Judaism as the Tanak (TNK).
The Tanak is an acronym based on the Hebrew names of the three divisions of writings:
1) the Law - Torah
2) the Prophets - Nebiim
3) the Writings - Ketubim
When Jerusalem fell in A.D. 70 the Jews began writing down the interpretations of the Tanak which had been entirely oral before.
The Mishnah was produced around A.D. 500. Later, the Talmud was produced.
Since the production of the Talmud, all Judaism is Talmudic Judaism.
Orthodox Judaism holds that the Talmud, though not inspired, is expendable, but not revisable.
Other sects of Judaism, like Cabalistic movements accepted the Zohar as a supplement, but not a replacement, to the Talmud.
While the Tanak is the only Scripture in Judaism, all governance of life is done via the Talmud.
The Jewish Scriptures (for better or worse) must be interpreted through the lens of the Talmud.
Islam: The Qur'an as Event
The Qur'an is the compilation of what was revealed to Muhammad.
The Qur'an is merely excerpts from God's full book in heaven, the umm-al-kitub.
Muslims believe the Qur'an is as it is exactly as it was when it was revealed to Muhammad.
Despite its lofty place in Islam, the Qur'an was supplemented easy on by another book. The Hadith is a collection of the acts and sayings of Muhammad.
While the Hadith is not considered to be revealed like the Qur'an, it is nonetheless as binding as the Qur'an.
The value of the Qur'an within Islam has little to do with its content. The value lies in its very occurrence.
The Qur'an is utterly pristine, whereas other men's revelatory books like Moses' Law, David's Psalms and Jesus' Gospels while being products of revelation were distorted by their followers.
TO recognize the Qur'an is more important than to read it.
The Qur'an is not a human book at all; whereas, the Bible is wholly human and wholly divine.
Muslims believe that the Qur'an mediates God's presence into their lives.
Even in non-Arabic speaking countries the Qur'an is devoutly recited in Arabic. Recitation of the Qur'an is the most important function of the Qur'an in the Muslim community.
Zoroastrianism: A Ritual Accumulation
Similar to the Bible, the canon of Zoroastrianism is a collection of works spanning many centuries.
The Zoroastrianism Scripture is called the Avesta.
The oldest part of the Avesta is the Yasna, which contains hymns called the Gathas, some of which date back to Zoroaster (6th century B.C.).
The Videvdat is the newest part of the Avesta and dates from when Zoroastrianism was the State religion of Iran (A.D. 226 - 637).
The Avesta is not a great source for authoritative information about Zoroastrianism because the language is so impenetrable.
The language of the Gathas is called Avesta because it is simply so different from any other languages.
"One scholar of Iranian religion [H.S. Nybers] has maintained that the Gathas are so difficult to understand because they are intentional gibberish" (Corduan, 62).
Even in the Zoroastrian community, the Avesta is not supposed to be a source of information.
The Avesta is a ritual text used to recite as worship and purification.
Sikhism: A day in the Life of the Book
The Adi Granth is the Scripture of Sikhism.
Nanak (1469-1539) founded Sikhism as a way to bridge Hinduism and Islam. He taught that there is only one God whose nature lies beyond human reason and religious imagery.
Nanak was considered a holy guru by his followers. He was then followed by 9 other holy gurus, each seen as the embodiment of divine light.
Arjan Dev, the 5th Guru compiled all his and the previous gurus' chants and hymns into the Adi Granth.
Gobind Singh (1666-1708) the 10th and final guru, declared that there would be no more gurus and the Adi Granth would be the guru forever more.
From then on the book itself, which is displayed in the Golden Shrine of Amritsa has been recognized as true and binding by all Sikhs.
The Adi Granth is the very embodiment of God.
The Adi Granth functions in two ways:
1) It is the hymn book of the congregation
2) It is venerated as the holy guru.
The actual book is put to sleep in a bed at night and woken up and placed on an altar each morning.
"The basic function of the Adi Granth is an object of veneration, not as a record of revelation" (Corduan, 65).
Baha'i : A Canon Plus a Canon
Baha'i is a young religion founded by Baha'ullah.
Baha'ullah is considered to be a manifestation of God. He was the 9th manifestation after Abraham, Krishna, Moses, Zoroaster, Buddha, Jesus, Muhammad, the Bab and Baha'ullah.
Baha'ullah taught that all these other prophets had inspired writings and that his own writings complete the canon of world Scriptures for the time being.
The Baha'i Scriptures should be read in a similar fashion as the Protestant Christian Bible is, but the Baha'i Scriptures are paralleled by all the other 8 world Scriptures, whereas the Bible stands alone.
Hinduism: A Protean Canon
Eastern religions have sacred texts in a very different way then to Western religions, especially Christianity.
Hindu sacred texts are divided into two groups:
1) The Shruti
2) The Smriti
The Shruti are "seen", they were directly revealed to the semi-divine rishis of old who passed them down.
The Smriti are "heard", they are merely passed down as tradition only.
Shruti:
- Vedas
- Brahmanas
- Upanishads
Smriti:
- Ramayana
- Mahabharata
- Bhagavad Gita
The Smriti are epic poems and the deuterocanon, while the canon is the Vedic complex.
The distinction is much more ambiguous in reality then in theory.
Buddhism: Canon by Selection
Two major books:
1) Poli Canon
2) Lotus Sutra
The Poli Canon contains the Tripitaka (Three Baskets) and is the oldest Buddhist writings.
The Tripitaka is associated with the older, more traditional form of Buddhism, Theravada Buddhism.
The Lotus Sutra is associated with the more recent and more innovative form of Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism.
Chinese and Japanese Religions
Scriptures and Canon are not easily adapted for Far East Religions.
Religion/Scriptures
Daoism - The Doodejing & the Zhuangzi
Confucianism - The Analects
Shinto - The Kojiki, the Nihong and the Amatsu Narito
The Daodejing contains the wisdom of Lao Tzu, the founder of Daoism.
The Zhuangzi is a collection of anecdotal essays by the teacher Laozi (but probably not the same Laozi/Lao-Tzu)
The Analects is the teachings of Confucius.
The Kojiki is the official Japanese traditional myth. The Nihangi is a supplement to the Kojiki. The Amatsu Nihong is a book of standard prayers and rituals of Shinto.
The Singularity of the Christian Scriptures
The Christian Scriptures is different from all other Scriptures and all Scriptures are unique in their own way.
All Scriptures contain some truths, if truth is meant as that which corresponds to reality.
However, if truth is understood under the coherence theory of truth rather than the correspondence theory of truth then no religions can share truth because they will be truths from differing systems.
Cornelius van Til argued that even knowledge of a flower is different for a Christian and non-Christian. To the Christian, a flower is the creation of a personal God whereas it is a product of chance formation of matter to a non-Christian.
Other Scriptures also contain some wisdom. They also contain some religious truths.
That said, the Bible is sufficient. All we (as Christians) have is the Bible and all we need is the Bible.
There is no deuterocannon in Christianity.
Religious truths in other Scriptures can only be duplications of revealed truths in the Bible.
Other Scriptures do not contain special revelation. But other Scriptures can have a basis in general revelation.
Subsequent Reaction to Schmidt & Original Monotheism
Whether or not one accepts Schmidt's theory it is no longer possible to strictly adhere to an evolutionary theory of religion in light of Schmidt's anthropological evidence.
The most common reaction to Schmidt is to reject his conclusions on an idealogical basis.
Joseph M. Kitasawa claims that while historical evidence is good in the origin theory, any religion's origin is ultimately answerable with metaphysical answers.
Others, like many post-modernists, including David Adams Leeming, claim that religion arises out of a specific social context. Historical investigation is wholly absent from this type of analysis.
Raffaele Pettazzoni attempts to bridge the gap of extreme historistic theories and purely a historical phenomenology. He gave history its due place, but did not draw such strong conclusions as Schmidt.
Pettazzoni maintained that the Supreme god of primitive cultures did not constitute monotheistic religion because that god was a creator and sustainer god, but a remote god nonetheless. He argued that only reform from polytheism could lead to true monotheism.
Summary
There is good reason to believe that religion began with the awareness of a single, creator God.
The God of original monotheism is identical to the God of Scripture in his basic attributes.
The persistence of monotheism can be attributed to the historical continuity with the awareness of God by the first human beings and its reinforcement in general revelation.
General revelation has two dimensions:
1) An intuitive one
2) A rational one
Both yield:
1) Knowledge of the existence of God
2) Knowledge of God's attributes
3) Knowledge of a fundamental moral sense
Chapter 3 - Special Revelation and Non-Christian Scriptures
Christianity maintains that special revelation is located in the Old Testament and New Testament, as well as in Jesus Christ himself.
There are many non-Christian scriptures, but the nature of Scripture is radically different in each religion.
Corduan's "The Protestant Fallacy" is reading other religions' scriptures as one would read the Christian Scriptures. Since scriptural nature varies from religion to religion there can be no single way of reading or regarding Scriptures. One cannot assume the role of Scripture in any religion is identical to the role of Scripture in Christianity.
The Protestant Fallacy
Classical Protestantism holds that the Bible is the literal Word of God and thus, the text is inspired by God.
Protestantism asserts "sola scriptura". That is, there is no other source for propositional revelation other than the Bible.
Protestant Christianity is an "extremely book-bound form of religion" (Corduan, 57-58).
Protestant Christianity stands or falls by Scriptural assertions.
The Protestant fallacy is applying this "sola scriptura" mentality (which is appropriate for the Bible) to other religion's scriptures.
Judaism: The Deuterocanon as key to the Canon
The Protestant fallacy manifests itself when one assumes that to understand Judaism one must simply study the Old Testament.
This can lead to assertions like, "since the Jews no longer perform the ritual sacrifices they are required by their own scriptures, Judaism is internally incoherent".
The Scriptures of Judaism are identical with the Old Testament Canon of Christianity. These books are known in Judaism as the Tanak (TNK).
The Tanak is an acronym based on the Hebrew names of the three divisions of writings:
1) the Law - Torah
2) the Prophets - Nebiim
3) the Writings - Ketubim
When Jerusalem fell in A.D. 70 the Jews began writing down the interpretations of the Tanak which had been entirely oral before.
The Mishnah was produced around A.D. 500. Later, the Talmud was produced.
Since the production of the Talmud, all Judaism is Talmudic Judaism.
Orthodox Judaism holds that the Talmud, though not inspired, is expendable, but not revisable.
Other sects of Judaism, like Cabalistic movements accepted the Zohar as a supplement, but not a replacement, to the Talmud.
While the Tanak is the only Scripture in Judaism, all governance of life is done via the Talmud.
The Jewish Scriptures (for better or worse) must be interpreted through the lens of the Talmud.
Islam: The Qur'an as Event
The Qur'an is the compilation of what was revealed to Muhammad.
The Qur'an is merely excerpts from God's full book in heaven, the umm-al-kitub.
Muslims believe the Qur'an is as it is exactly as it was when it was revealed to Muhammad.
Despite its lofty place in Islam, the Qur'an was supplemented easy on by another book. The Hadith is a collection of the acts and sayings of Muhammad.
While the Hadith is not considered to be revealed like the Qur'an, it is nonetheless as binding as the Qur'an.
The value of the Qur'an within Islam has little to do with its content. The value lies in its very occurrence.
The Qur'an is utterly pristine, whereas other men's revelatory books like Moses' Law, David's Psalms and Jesus' Gospels while being products of revelation were distorted by their followers.
TO recognize the Qur'an is more important than to read it.
The Qur'an is not a human book at all; whereas, the Bible is wholly human and wholly divine.
Muslims believe that the Qur'an mediates God's presence into their lives.
Even in non-Arabic speaking countries the Qur'an is devoutly recited in Arabic. Recitation of the Qur'an is the most important function of the Qur'an in the Muslim community.
Zoroastrianism: A Ritual Accumulation
Similar to the Bible, the canon of Zoroastrianism is a collection of works spanning many centuries.
The Zoroastrianism Scripture is called the Avesta.
The oldest part of the Avesta is the Yasna, which contains hymns called the Gathas, some of which date back to Zoroaster (6th century B.C.).
The Videvdat is the newest part of the Avesta and dates from when Zoroastrianism was the State religion of Iran (A.D. 226 - 637).
The Avesta is not a great source for authoritative information about Zoroastrianism because the language is so impenetrable.
The language of the Gathas is called Avesta because it is simply so different from any other languages.
"One scholar of Iranian religion [H.S. Nybers] has maintained that the Gathas are so difficult to understand because they are intentional gibberish" (Corduan, 62).
Even in the Zoroastrian community, the Avesta is not supposed to be a source of information.
The Avesta is a ritual text used to recite as worship and purification.
Sikhism: A day in the Life of the Book
The Adi Granth is the Scripture of Sikhism.
Nanak (1469-1539) founded Sikhism as a way to bridge Hinduism and Islam. He taught that there is only one God whose nature lies beyond human reason and religious imagery.
Nanak was considered a holy guru by his followers. He was then followed by 9 other holy gurus, each seen as the embodiment of divine light.
Arjan Dev, the 5th Guru compiled all his and the previous gurus' chants and hymns into the Adi Granth.
Gobind Singh (1666-1708) the 10th and final guru, declared that there would be no more gurus and the Adi Granth would be the guru forever more.
From then on the book itself, which is displayed in the Golden Shrine of Amritsa has been recognized as true and binding by all Sikhs.
The Adi Granth is the very embodiment of God.
The Adi Granth functions in two ways:
1) It is the hymn book of the congregation
2) It is venerated as the holy guru.
The actual book is put to sleep in a bed at night and woken up and placed on an altar each morning.
"The basic function of the Adi Granth is an object of veneration, not as a record of revelation" (Corduan, 65).
Baha'i : A Canon Plus a Canon
Baha'i is a young religion founded by Baha'ullah.
Baha'ullah is considered to be a manifestation of God. He was the 9th manifestation after Abraham, Krishna, Moses, Zoroaster, Buddha, Jesus, Muhammad, the Bab and Baha'ullah.
Baha'ullah taught that all these other prophets had inspired writings and that his own writings complete the canon of world Scriptures for the time being.
The Baha'i Scriptures should be read in a similar fashion as the Protestant Christian Bible is, but the Baha'i Scriptures are paralleled by all the other 8 world Scriptures, whereas the Bible stands alone.
Hinduism: A Protean Canon
Eastern religions have sacred texts in a very different way then to Western religions, especially Christianity.
Hindu sacred texts are divided into two groups:
1) The Shruti
2) The Smriti
The Shruti are "seen", they were directly revealed to the semi-divine rishis of old who passed them down.
The Smriti are "heard", they are merely passed down as tradition only.
Shruti:
- Vedas
- Brahmanas
- Upanishads
Smriti:
- Ramayana
- Mahabharata
- Bhagavad Gita
The Smriti are epic poems and the deuterocanon, while the canon is the Vedic complex.
The distinction is much more ambiguous in reality then in theory.
Buddhism: Canon by Selection
Two major books:
1) Poli Canon
2) Lotus Sutra
The Poli Canon contains the Tripitaka (Three Baskets) and is the oldest Buddhist writings.
The Tripitaka is associated with the older, more traditional form of Buddhism, Theravada Buddhism.
The Lotus Sutra is associated with the more recent and more innovative form of Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism.
Chinese and Japanese Religions
Scriptures and Canon are not easily adapted for Far East Religions.
Religion/Scriptures
Daoism - The Doodejing & the Zhuangzi
Confucianism - The Analects
Shinto - The Kojiki, the Nihong and the Amatsu Narito
The Daodejing contains the wisdom of Lao Tzu, the founder of Daoism.
The Zhuangzi is a collection of anecdotal essays by the teacher Laozi (but probably not the same Laozi/Lao-Tzu)
The Analects is the teachings of Confucius.
The Kojiki is the official Japanese traditional myth. The Nihangi is a supplement to the Kojiki. The Amatsu Nihong is a book of standard prayers and rituals of Shinto.
The Singularity of the Christian Scriptures
The Christian Scriptures is different from all other Scriptures and all Scriptures are unique in their own way.
All Scriptures contain some truths, if truth is meant as that which corresponds to reality.
However, if truth is understood under the coherence theory of truth rather than the correspondence theory of truth then no religions can share truth because they will be truths from differing systems.
Cornelius van Til argued that even knowledge of a flower is different for a Christian and non-Christian. To the Christian, a flower is the creation of a personal God whereas it is a product of chance formation of matter to a non-Christian.
Other Scriptures also contain some wisdom. They also contain some religious truths.
That said, the Bible is sufficient. All we (as Christians) have is the Bible and all we need is the Bible.
There is no deuterocannon in Christianity.
Religious truths in other Scriptures can only be duplications of revealed truths in the Bible.
Other Scriptures do not contain special revelation. But other Scriptures can have a basis in general revelation.
Monday, March 26, 2007
Quick survey of world religions
(Originally Written March 26, 2007 in Book 15)
A Tapestry of Faiths
The Common Threads Between Christianity & World Religions
Winfried Corduan
Intervarsity Press: Downers Grove, IL. 2002
Chapter 1: Asking the right Questions
Insofar as Christianity is the religion that expresses the preeminence of Christ, Christianity alone is true and worthwhile.
The relationship between Christianity and other religions have many dimensions of similarity.
1. The Soteriological Dimension
2. The Content Dimension
There are many beliefs that Christianity shares with other religions.
3. The Revelatory Dimension
Many religions claim truth is grounded in revelation.
4. The Apologetic Dimension
5. The Moral Dimension
Most religions include a moral system and many areas resemble each other.
6. The Communication Dimension
A Very Brief History of Religion
Traditional/tribal religions in contrast to enscripturated religions:
Traditional religions are closely tied to their local culture.
Traditional religions tend to be animistic and ritualistic.
They recognize nature spirits and ancestor spirits. Frequently they recognize a high god in the sky.
Western Religions in contrast to Eastern Traditions
Western traditions are largely monotheistic like Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Islam and Baha'i.
Monotheistic Western Religions Normally have:
1. A strong monotheistic emphasis
2. A strong ethical emphasis
3. A positive approach to history. History is an unfolding of divine revelation and action.
Eastern religions are religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Daoism, Confucianism and Shinto.
Buddhism and Jainism are direct offshoots of Hinduism.
Eastern religions are more divers in belief than Western Religions.
3. Beliefs in Contrast to Cultus:
Cultus is the rituals, altars, hymns, temples, offerings and modes of prayer.
The relationship between a belief system and its cultus can be extremely elastic.
I. Judaism
Origin: Moses, 15th Century B.C.
Essential Beliefs and Practices:
- Monotheism
- obedience to a divinely revealed law
Scriptures:
- The Hebrew Scriptures
- Interpretations of the Scriptures (i.e. the Talmud)
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Orthodox
- Conservative
- Reform
II. Zoroastrianism
Origin: Zoroaster, 6th Century B.C.
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Monotheism
- Conflict between God (Ahura Mazda) and the evil Spirt (Angra Mainyu)
- Ethical purity
- Ritual cleanliness
Major Contemporary Division
- None
III. Christianity
Origin: Christ, 1st Century A.D.
Essential Beliefs and Practices:
- Trinitarian Monotheism
- Jesus as the Messiah
Scriptures:
- The Bible (Old and New Testaments)
Major Contemporary Divisions:
- Eastern Orthodox
- Roman Catholic
- Protestant
IV. Islam
Origin: Muhammad, (A.D. 570 - 632)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Monotheism
- Allah
- Judgment based on their obedience to God's requirement
Scriptures
- The Qu'ran
- Hadith
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Sunnite
- Shi'ites
V. Baha'i
Origin: Baha'ullah 19th Century
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Baha'ullah was the manifestation of God
- Unity of all religions
- New World Order
Scriptures:
- The writings of Baha'ullah
Major Contemporary Divisions
- None
VI. Hinduism
Origin: 1500 B.C., religion of the Aryans who invaded the Indian subcontinent
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Extremely diverse
- Samsara (reincarnation)
- Karma
Scriptures
- The Vedas
- The Ramayana
- The Mahabharata
- Brahmans
- Sutras
- Puranas
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Monastic Groups
- Bhakti (personalistic)
- Vaishnavitas
- Shaivites
- Shaktites
VII. Buddhism
Origin: Gautama Buddha (600 B.C.)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Salvation = deliverance from the reincarnation cycle
- Nirvana
Scriptures:
- The Tripitaka
- The Lotus Sutra
- Other sutras
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Theravada (Hinayana)
- Mahayana
- Zen
- Pure Land
- Soka Gakkai
- Tibetan
VIII. Jainism
Origin: Mahavira (600 BC)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Redemption by elimination of solid karma matter from one's soul
- Worship of the Tirthankaras
Scriptures
- The Agamas
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Digambaras
- Svetambaras
IX. Sikhism
Origin: Guru Nanak (16th Century A.D.)
Essential beliefs and Practices:
- There is one God who is represented on earth by the Holy Book the Adi Granth.
- Escape from the reincarnation cycle
Scriptures
- Adi Granth
Major Contemporary Divisions
- None
X. Daoism
Origins - Lao Zi (Lao-Tzu)
Essential beliefs and practices
- Yin & Yang
Scriptures
- Daodejing
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Daoism is interconnected with other religions, especially Buddhism and Confucianism
XI. Confucianism
Origins: Confucius (6th Century B.C.)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Ethical System
Scriptures
- Analects
Major Contemporary Divisions
- None
XII. Shinto
A Tapestry of Faiths
The Common Threads Between Christianity & World Religions
Winfried Corduan
Intervarsity Press: Downers Grove, IL. 2002
Chapter 1: Asking the right Questions
Insofar as Christianity is the religion that expresses the preeminence of Christ, Christianity alone is true and worthwhile.
The relationship between Christianity and other religions have many dimensions of similarity.
1. The Soteriological Dimension
2. The Content Dimension
There are many beliefs that Christianity shares with other religions.
3. The Revelatory Dimension
Many religions claim truth is grounded in revelation.
4. The Apologetic Dimension
5. The Moral Dimension
Most religions include a moral system and many areas resemble each other.
6. The Communication Dimension
A Very Brief History of Religion
Traditional/tribal religions in contrast to enscripturated religions:
Traditional religions are closely tied to their local culture.
Traditional religions tend to be animistic and ritualistic.
They recognize nature spirits and ancestor spirits. Frequently they recognize a high god in the sky.
Western Religions in contrast to Eastern Traditions
Western traditions are largely monotheistic like Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Islam and Baha'i.
Monotheistic Western Religions Normally have:
1. A strong monotheistic emphasis
2. A strong ethical emphasis
3. A positive approach to history. History is an unfolding of divine revelation and action.
Eastern religions are religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Daoism, Confucianism and Shinto.
Buddhism and Jainism are direct offshoots of Hinduism.
Eastern religions are more divers in belief than Western Religions.
3. Beliefs in Contrast to Cultus:
Cultus is the rituals, altars, hymns, temples, offerings and modes of prayer.
The relationship between a belief system and its cultus can be extremely elastic.
I. Judaism
Origin: Moses, 15th Century B.C.
Essential Beliefs and Practices:
- Monotheism
- obedience to a divinely revealed law
Scriptures:
- The Hebrew Scriptures
- Interpretations of the Scriptures (i.e. the Talmud)
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Orthodox
- Conservative
- Reform
II. Zoroastrianism
Origin: Zoroaster, 6th Century B.C.
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Monotheism
- Conflict between God (Ahura Mazda) and the evil Spirt (Angra Mainyu)
- Ethical purity
- Ritual cleanliness
Major Contemporary Division
- None
III. Christianity
Origin: Christ, 1st Century A.D.
Essential Beliefs and Practices:
- Trinitarian Monotheism
- Jesus as the Messiah
Scriptures:
- The Bible (Old and New Testaments)
Major Contemporary Divisions:
- Eastern Orthodox
- Roman Catholic
- Protestant
IV. Islam
Origin: Muhammad, (A.D. 570 - 632)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Monotheism
- Allah
- Judgment based on their obedience to God's requirement
Scriptures
- The Qu'ran
- Hadith
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Sunnite
- Shi'ites
V. Baha'i
Origin: Baha'ullah 19th Century
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Baha'ullah was the manifestation of God
- Unity of all religions
- New World Order
Scriptures:
- The writings of Baha'ullah
Major Contemporary Divisions
- None
VI. Hinduism
Origin: 1500 B.C., religion of the Aryans who invaded the Indian subcontinent
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Extremely diverse
- Samsara (reincarnation)
- Karma
Scriptures
- The Vedas
- The Ramayana
- The Mahabharata
- Brahmans
- Sutras
- Puranas
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Monastic Groups
- Bhakti (personalistic)
- Vaishnavitas
- Shaivites
- Shaktites
VII. Buddhism
Origin: Gautama Buddha (600 B.C.)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Salvation = deliverance from the reincarnation cycle
- Nirvana
Scriptures:
- The Tripitaka
- The Lotus Sutra
- Other sutras
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Theravada (Hinayana)
- Mahayana
- Zen
- Pure Land
- Soka Gakkai
- Tibetan
VIII. Jainism
Origin: Mahavira (600 BC)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Redemption by elimination of solid karma matter from one's soul
- Worship of the Tirthankaras
Scriptures
- The Agamas
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Digambaras
- Svetambaras
IX. Sikhism
Origin: Guru Nanak (16th Century A.D.)
Essential beliefs and Practices:
- There is one God who is represented on earth by the Holy Book the Adi Granth.
- Escape from the reincarnation cycle
Scriptures
- Adi Granth
Major Contemporary Divisions
- None
X. Daoism
Origins - Lao Zi (Lao-Tzu)
Essential beliefs and practices
- Yin & Yang
Scriptures
- Daodejing
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Daoism is interconnected with other religions, especially Buddhism and Confucianism
XI. Confucianism
Origins: Confucius (6th Century B.C.)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Ethical System
Scriptures
- Analects
Major Contemporary Divisions
- None
XII. Shinto
Saturday, March 17, 2007
Functions of Rules in Various Religions
(Originally written March 17, 2007 in Book 15)
Class Notes
Moral purity vs. Ceremonial Purity
Ritual defilement can:
1) Occur if something is so evil that it may not be touched
2) Occur if something is so holy that it may not be touched
Defilement results in either
1) of one's self
2) of the holy object
Taboo - ultimate form of ritual defilement
Functions of the Rules in Various Religions
Western Religions:
- God as Lawgiver
- People are accountable to God
- Includes interpersonal dimension
Eastern Religions
- Rules are intrinsic to the universe
Lutheran Conception of Law
- 1st use of the Law: makes possible a livable society
- 2nd use of the Law: "Schoolmaster" - display our sinfulness to drive us to the Grace in Christ
- 3rd use of the law: evidence of regeneration
Judaism conception of Law
- The law demonstrates the righteousness that is characteristic for the people of God.
- makes the world a better place
- limited demands on Gentiles
- not tied to heaven or hell in a strict sense
Islamic conception of Law
- Rules as a test to qualify for paradise
5 Pillars of Islam:
1) Confession
2) Prayer
3) Fasting
4) Almsgiving
5) Pilgrimage
Indic Religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism
- Rules are intrinsic to the universe
- divinity revealed the law
- binding on all beings, including gods
Confucianism's conception of rules
- rules bring about harmony among people
- harmony among people brings harmony in the universe
Class Notes
Moral purity vs. Ceremonial Purity
Ritual defilement can:
1) Occur if something is so evil that it may not be touched
2) Occur if something is so holy that it may not be touched
Defilement results in either
1) of one's self
2) of the holy object
Taboo - ultimate form of ritual defilement
Functions of the Rules in Various Religions
Western Religions:
- God as Lawgiver
- People are accountable to God
- Includes interpersonal dimension
Eastern Religions
- Rules are intrinsic to the universe
Lutheran Conception of Law
- 1st use of the Law: makes possible a livable society
- 2nd use of the Law: "Schoolmaster" - display our sinfulness to drive us to the Grace in Christ
- 3rd use of the law: evidence of regeneration
Judaism conception of Law
- The law demonstrates the righteousness that is characteristic for the people of God.
- makes the world a better place
- limited demands on Gentiles
- not tied to heaven or hell in a strict sense
Islamic conception of Law
- Rules as a test to qualify for paradise
5 Pillars of Islam:
1) Confession
2) Prayer
3) Fasting
4) Almsgiving
5) Pilgrimage
Indic Religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism
- Rules are intrinsic to the universe
- divinity revealed the law
- binding on all beings, including gods
Confucianism's conception of rules
- rules bring about harmony among people
- harmony among people brings harmony in the universe
Sunday, February 25, 2007
Chapter 13 - Pocket Guide to World Religions
(Originally written February 25, 2007 in Book 14)
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 13 - Shinto
Name
This Japanese religion comes from the Chinese term, "shen-dao" which means, "the way of the gods".
The Japanese equivalent of "shen-dao" is "kami-no-mihi".
It should never be referred to as Shintoism.
Numbers and Distribution
"Nearly all Japanese people are influenced by Shinto, but few would declare Shinto to be their religion" (Corduan, 121).
Many Japanese combine Shinto and Buddhism into their faith.
There are only 3 or 4 million pure Shinto practitioners, but over 100 million who incorporate parts of Shinto into their belief structure.
Shinto is confined sole to Japan and is not readily exportable.
Symbols
The most prominent symbol is the torii gate.
The Japanese flag is also a Shinto symbol standing for the rising sun and the sun goddess, Amaterasu
History
Shinto goes back to pre-historic times. It was established long before the 6th century B.C. when Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism came to Japan.
Buddhism slowly replaced Shinto as the dominant religion in Japan but in 1868 Shinto was reinstated as mandatory practice for all of Japan.
The end of WWII saw the end of the emperor as a god and Shinto declined.
Scriptures
There are three major writings of Shinto, but these are descriptive rather than Shinto rule books.
1) The Kojiki
- Shinto Mythology
- Collected by Yasumaro in A.D. 712
- Tells how the gods (kami) came into being
- tells how the god Izanagi and goddess Izanami married and created the Japanese islands
- tells how Amaterasu become the ancestor of the emperor of Japan
2) The Nihongi
- finalized by Yasumaro in A.D. 725
3) The Amatsu Norito
- collection of prayers and rituals of Shinto
Major Beliefs
Shinto is not a set of beliefs that lead to salvation. It is a set of practices to maintain harmony with the Spiritual world.
There is a spirit world; individual spiritual forces called Kami indwell in this world
A Kami can be many things:
1) impersonal spiritual force that is latent in nature
2) personal spirits that inhabit our environment
3) personal gods
People can relate to the Kami and harness their power by respecting them. If one offends the Kami they run the risk of being thwarted by the Kami.
Subgroups
State Shinto - the emperor is divine (officially repudiated)
Shrine Shinto - holy sites
Domestic Shinto - practices that are part of the traditional Shinto home
Sectarian Shinto - the new Japanese religion
Worship practices
One must offer prayers and sacrifices to the Kami.
One must inform the Kami of one's plans because the Kami is unhappy when it is surprised.
Religious Buildings
Shinto buildings are called shrines
The Shinto Shrines often have:
1) A torii gate entrance
2) a left curved walkway
3) The outer part (haiden) to be entered by worshippers
4) A ball with a rope to get the Kami's attention
5) The inner part (honden) is reserved for priests
6) Inside the honden there are Shintai, the sacred objects of that shrine's particular Kami
Japanese couples are married in Shinto Shrines, but funerals take place at Buddhist temples.
Home Practices
A home should have a but sudan, a shelf with a statue of a Buddha.
It should also have a Kamidan, a shelf with prayer objects dedicated to the Kami.
Clothing
There are not regulations on clothing, but Shinto festivals often have Shinto practitioners wearing traditional Japanese clothing.
Diet
There are no regulations on what not to eat, but red meat cannot be offered as a sacrifice.
Calendar
Japan operates on the Gregorian calendar.
New Year's is January 1st and is a day of purification.
February 3rd is the beginning of spring.
March 4 is Doll Day when girls display their dolls.
April 8 is the birthday of the Buddha and the day when the Kami descend from the mountains.
May 5 is Boys' day when boys are recognized
June 30 is the renewal of purification.
In the middle of July there is a time for commemorating the dead.
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 13 - Shinto
Name
This Japanese religion comes from the Chinese term, "shen-dao" which means, "the way of the gods".
The Japanese equivalent of "shen-dao" is "kami-no-mihi".
It should never be referred to as Shintoism.
Numbers and Distribution
"Nearly all Japanese people are influenced by Shinto, but few would declare Shinto to be their religion" (Corduan, 121).
Many Japanese combine Shinto and Buddhism into their faith.
There are only 3 or 4 million pure Shinto practitioners, but over 100 million who incorporate parts of Shinto into their belief structure.
Shinto is confined sole to Japan and is not readily exportable.
Symbols
The most prominent symbol is the torii gate.
The Japanese flag is also a Shinto symbol standing for the rising sun and the sun goddess, Amaterasu
History
Shinto goes back to pre-historic times. It was established long before the 6th century B.C. when Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism came to Japan.
Buddhism slowly replaced Shinto as the dominant religion in Japan but in 1868 Shinto was reinstated as mandatory practice for all of Japan.
The end of WWII saw the end of the emperor as a god and Shinto declined.
Scriptures
There are three major writings of Shinto, but these are descriptive rather than Shinto rule books.
1) The Kojiki
- Shinto Mythology
- Collected by Yasumaro in A.D. 712
- Tells how the gods (kami) came into being
- tells how the god Izanagi and goddess Izanami married and created the Japanese islands
- tells how Amaterasu become the ancestor of the emperor of Japan
2) The Nihongi
- finalized by Yasumaro in A.D. 725
3) The Amatsu Norito
- collection of prayers and rituals of Shinto
Major Beliefs
Shinto is not a set of beliefs that lead to salvation. It is a set of practices to maintain harmony with the Spiritual world.
There is a spirit world; individual spiritual forces called Kami indwell in this world
A Kami can be many things:
1) impersonal spiritual force that is latent in nature
2) personal spirits that inhabit our environment
3) personal gods
People can relate to the Kami and harness their power by respecting them. If one offends the Kami they run the risk of being thwarted by the Kami.
Subgroups
State Shinto - the emperor is divine (officially repudiated)
Shrine Shinto - holy sites
Domestic Shinto - practices that are part of the traditional Shinto home
Sectarian Shinto - the new Japanese religion
Worship practices
One must offer prayers and sacrifices to the Kami.
One must inform the Kami of one's plans because the Kami is unhappy when it is surprised.
Religious Buildings
Shinto buildings are called shrines
The Shinto Shrines often have:
1) A torii gate entrance
2) a left curved walkway
3) The outer part (haiden) to be entered by worshippers
4) A ball with a rope to get the Kami's attention
5) The inner part (honden) is reserved for priests
6) Inside the honden there are Shintai, the sacred objects of that shrine's particular Kami
Japanese couples are married in Shinto Shrines, but funerals take place at Buddhist temples.
Home Practices
A home should have a but sudan, a shelf with a statue of a Buddha.
It should also have a Kamidan, a shelf with prayer objects dedicated to the Kami.
Clothing
There are not regulations on clothing, but Shinto festivals often have Shinto practitioners wearing traditional Japanese clothing.
Diet
There are no regulations on what not to eat, but red meat cannot be offered as a sacrifice.
Calendar
Japan operates on the Gregorian calendar.
New Year's is January 1st and is a day of purification.
February 3rd is the beginning of spring.
March 4 is Doll Day when girls display their dolls.
April 8 is the birthday of the Buddha and the day when the Kami descend from the mountains.
May 5 is Boys' day when boys are recognized
June 30 is the renewal of purification.
In the middle of July there is a time for commemorating the dead.
Sunday, February 18, 2007
Chapter 6 - Pocket Guide to World Religions
(Originally written February 18, 2007 in Book 14)
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 6 - Daoism
Name
Also spelled Taoism. The name is based on the concept of Dao, which means "The Way".
Taoism means "following the Way".
It is an abstract philosophy and a religion.
Numbers and Distribution
Daoism is considered a part of the combined Chinese religion that includes Confucianism and Buddhism.
250 million practitioners is a rough guess to how many adhere to Daoism.
Symbols
"The Yin and Yang sign represents the two fundamental elements of the universe intertwined with each other" (Corduan, 58).
Yin and Yang
Earth & Heaven
Cold & Hot
Wet & Dry
Passive & Active
Dark & Bright
Mysterious & Clear
Feminine & Masculine
The Yin-Yang represents the coexistence of opposites that complement one another.
The dots show that yin exists in yang and yang exists in yin, in perfect harmony.
Good and Evil are the same as balance and imbalance. Evil only occurs when there is too much yin or too much yang.
The right amount of balance is dependent on the object.
History
As a purely philosophical system Daoism has existed since the 6th century.
The founder of Daoism is stated to be Lao-zi (Lao-Tzu). Lao-zi was roughly a contemporary of Buddha and Confucius.
When Lao-Zi was even older he decided to travel west to India in search of more wisdom. At the border, the gate keeper would not let him leave until he wrote down all of his wisdom. Lao-Zi then wrote the Daodejing (Tao-Te-Ching). He then left China, never to be heard of again.
Taoism slowly developed from an abstract philosophy into a religion. The balance of spiritual forces provided a basis for the religion.
The Daoism religion recognized a large number of gods in a hierarchy similar to Chinese government. The highest god was the Jade Emperor, who rules the entire universe.
Daoism is unique among polytheistic religions because "the idea that the power of the gods becomes available insofar as there is spiritual harmony among people, ancestors and gods" (Corduan, 60).
Scriptures
There are many Daoism writings, but the two most important ones are:
1) The Daodejing by Lao-Zi
- about the universe, language and government
- If the Dao is left alone then balance will be restored and everything will be right. People do not let the Dao work, but try to fix things themselves which makes it worse.
2) The Yijing (I-Ching)
- predates Lao-Zi by centuries
- A guide to fortune telling
- "A fortune teller analyzes a combination of sticks that come in two lengths and thereby uncovers the balance of yin and yang for a particular situation" (Corduan, 61).
Major Beliefs
Fundamental premise: The Dao is the ultimate state of harmony and balance in the universe.
To bring about the Dao is to make sure everything is going well in the realm of gods and ancestors.
Daoism as a religion is usually blended with Buddhism and Confucianism.
There are many gods, arranged by power in a bureaucratic manner. Mine gods govern a village or town. Major gods govern the world.
All beings (humans, gods, ancestors and nature) are linked in a glance. Humans must find the imbalance and remedy the situation.
Humans are quite capable of diagnosing problems and fixing them.
Subgroups
Daoism is not a true organization so there are no subgroups.
Daoism is a philosophy that can be interpreted and applied whenever and wherever.
Worship Practices:
1. Ancestor veneration
- Incense is burnt daily for the deceased. Sometimes feed is offered
2. Fortune telling
- Discerning proper yin and yang is crucial to Daoism
3. Funerals
- Keeping a dead spirit happy is crucial to balance.
- All the funeral rituals must be performed properly to ensure a happy departed spirit. Paper replicas of the deceased belongings are burned to ensure that they will have those things in the after life.
- Even years after death, the living most continually provide for the deceased.
4. Worship of the gods
- The gods are the spiritual rulers of villages, regions and the nation. It is their obligation to provide for their constituents.
- The people under the gods must worship the gods with festivals and temples and rituals to ensure protection and care.
- If the results of worship are not seen, the gods will likely be forgotten or replaced.
5. Feng-Shui
- Feng-Shui is the arrangement of one's space to ensure spiritual harmony and balance.
Religious Buildings
Modern China combines Buddhism and Daoism in one building.
Taoist temples are arranged according to the guidelines of Feng-Shui.
Taoist temples contain:
1. Statues of gods and goddesses that are important to that area.
2. Statues of guardian spirits to scare off evil spirits.
3. Large pots to hold incense sticks called joss sticks.
4. A wall or room with ancestor tablets. A part of the deceased soul remains indwelled in these tablets. Visiting them is maintaining contact with the dead.
5. An area where fortune telling can be done.
6. A table or booth where joss sticks and other paper structure to be burned are sold.
7. A large oven to burn things for the spirits. Usually a drum is attached to the oven so that people can get the attention of the spirits.
Home Practices
The Home must be a center for harmony and balance.
A home must follow the demands of fengshui.
Statues of gods are usually kept in the home. The kitchen god who reports the status of the home to the higher god's every New Year's Day is a statue found in virtually every home.
The most important item in every home is the wall shrine that contains ancestor tablets. Incense is burned and food offerings are made daily to the tablets.
Clothing
Daoism has no clothing regulations.
Diet
There are no food prohibitions in Daoism
Calendar
Taoism follows the Confucian Lunar Calendar
The Hungry Ghost Festival is an important Daoist holiday. A "hungry ghost" is an unsatisfied deceased person. The Hungry Ghost Festival is a time to appease all the hungry ghosts that are freed from hell in the seventh lunar month.
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 6 - Daoism
Name
Also spelled Taoism. The name is based on the concept of Dao, which means "The Way".
Taoism means "following the Way".
It is an abstract philosophy and a religion.
Numbers and Distribution
Daoism is considered a part of the combined Chinese religion that includes Confucianism and Buddhism.
250 million practitioners is a rough guess to how many adhere to Daoism.
Symbols
"The Yin and Yang sign represents the two fundamental elements of the universe intertwined with each other" (Corduan, 58).
Yin and Yang
Earth & Heaven
Cold & Hot
Wet & Dry
Passive & Active
Dark & Bright
Mysterious & Clear
Feminine & Masculine
The Yin-Yang represents the coexistence of opposites that complement one another.
The dots show that yin exists in yang and yang exists in yin, in perfect harmony.
Good and Evil are the same as balance and imbalance. Evil only occurs when there is too much yin or too much yang.
The right amount of balance is dependent on the object.
History
As a purely philosophical system Daoism has existed since the 6th century.
The founder of Daoism is stated to be Lao-zi (Lao-Tzu). Lao-zi was roughly a contemporary of Buddha and Confucius.
When Lao-Zi was even older he decided to travel west to India in search of more wisdom. At the border, the gate keeper would not let him leave until he wrote down all of his wisdom. Lao-Zi then wrote the Daodejing (Tao-Te-Ching). He then left China, never to be heard of again.
Taoism slowly developed from an abstract philosophy into a religion. The balance of spiritual forces provided a basis for the religion.
The Daoism religion recognized a large number of gods in a hierarchy similar to Chinese government. The highest god was the Jade Emperor, who rules the entire universe.
Daoism is unique among polytheistic religions because "the idea that the power of the gods becomes available insofar as there is spiritual harmony among people, ancestors and gods" (Corduan, 60).
Scriptures
There are many Daoism writings, but the two most important ones are:
1) The Daodejing by Lao-Zi
- about the universe, language and government
- If the Dao is left alone then balance will be restored and everything will be right. People do not let the Dao work, but try to fix things themselves which makes it worse.
2) The Yijing (I-Ching)
- predates Lao-Zi by centuries
- A guide to fortune telling
- "A fortune teller analyzes a combination of sticks that come in two lengths and thereby uncovers the balance of yin and yang for a particular situation" (Corduan, 61).
Major Beliefs
Fundamental premise: The Dao is the ultimate state of harmony and balance in the universe.
To bring about the Dao is to make sure everything is going well in the realm of gods and ancestors.
Daoism as a religion is usually blended with Buddhism and Confucianism.
There are many gods, arranged by power in a bureaucratic manner. Mine gods govern a village or town. Major gods govern the world.
All beings (humans, gods, ancestors and nature) are linked in a glance. Humans must find the imbalance and remedy the situation.
Humans are quite capable of diagnosing problems and fixing them.
Subgroups
Daoism is not a true organization so there are no subgroups.
Daoism is a philosophy that can be interpreted and applied whenever and wherever.
Worship Practices:
1. Ancestor veneration
- Incense is burnt daily for the deceased. Sometimes feed is offered
2. Fortune telling
- Discerning proper yin and yang is crucial to Daoism
3. Funerals
- Keeping a dead spirit happy is crucial to balance.
- All the funeral rituals must be performed properly to ensure a happy departed spirit. Paper replicas of the deceased belongings are burned to ensure that they will have those things in the after life.
- Even years after death, the living most continually provide for the deceased.
4. Worship of the gods
- The gods are the spiritual rulers of villages, regions and the nation. It is their obligation to provide for their constituents.
- The people under the gods must worship the gods with festivals and temples and rituals to ensure protection and care.
- If the results of worship are not seen, the gods will likely be forgotten or replaced.
5. Feng-Shui
- Feng-Shui is the arrangement of one's space to ensure spiritual harmony and balance.
Religious Buildings
Modern China combines Buddhism and Daoism in one building.
Taoist temples are arranged according to the guidelines of Feng-Shui.
Taoist temples contain:
1. Statues of gods and goddesses that are important to that area.
2. Statues of guardian spirits to scare off evil spirits.
3. Large pots to hold incense sticks called joss sticks.
4. A wall or room with ancestor tablets. A part of the deceased soul remains indwelled in these tablets. Visiting them is maintaining contact with the dead.
5. An area where fortune telling can be done.
6. A table or booth where joss sticks and other paper structure to be burned are sold.
7. A large oven to burn things for the spirits. Usually a drum is attached to the oven so that people can get the attention of the spirits.
Home Practices
The Home must be a center for harmony and balance.
A home must follow the demands of fengshui.
Statues of gods are usually kept in the home. The kitchen god who reports the status of the home to the higher god's every New Year's Day is a statue found in virtually every home.
The most important item in every home is the wall shrine that contains ancestor tablets. Incense is burned and food offerings are made daily to the tablets.
Clothing
Daoism has no clothing regulations.
Diet
There are no food prohibitions in Daoism
Calendar
Taoism follows the Confucian Lunar Calendar
The Hungry Ghost Festival is an important Daoist holiday. A "hungry ghost" is an unsatisfied deceased person. The Hungry Ghost Festival is a time to appease all the hungry ghosts that are freed from hell in the seventh lunar month.
Chapter 5 - Pocket Guide to World Religions
(Originally written February 18, 2007 in Book 14)
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 5 - Confucianism
Name
Confucianism is named after its founder, Confucius.
Confucianism is often a way of life incorporated with other religions like Daoism and Buddhism.
Numbers and Distribution
Confucianism is not a stand alone religion, so its practitioners are nearly impossible to number.
Symbols
There are no official symbols for Confucianism.
History
Confucius lived in China from 551-479 BC.
Confucius lived in tumultuous times in China.
His father died when he was young, leaving him impoverished.
Through hard work he amazingly rose to the position of advisor to the prince of the province of Lu.
While advisor to the prince, he fell victim to the court's intrigue and spent the last 30 years of his life unemployed. He traveled throughout China his last 30 years and accumulated a vast number of disciples.
His ideas were seen as a way to restore Chinese stability.
Confucius wrote his ideas down, but were blocked by the Qin dynasty. The Han dynasty, which replaced the Qin dynasty, used Confucius' philosophy as the official philosophy of the Chinese Empire.
Confucius the man was venerated after death and became a part of China's long-standing ancestral worship practices.
Confucius' ideals have survived as the structure of Chinese society even until today.
Scriptures
Confucianism venerates all the Confucian classics, but the Analects are the most important.
Major Beliefs
"Confucianism is about how to create a flourishing society" (Corduan, 52).
Confucianism does not promote any supernatural beliefs, but does encourage people to fulfill religious obligations as a part of their moral duties.
Confucianism provides a blueprint for relationships.
Each individual has many roles in a given society. Each role has a virtue attached to it.
The most important virtue in Confucianism is filial piety. Filial piety is maintaining the honor of one's parents. Filial piety is as important in life as it is in death. There are numerous rituals to be performed by children of deceased parents.
Subgroups
There are differences in interpretation of Confucius, but there are no real subgroups in Confucianism.
Worship
There are no gods or salvation in Confucius' teachings.
He saw heaven as being the source of virtue.
Confucianism endorsed ancestor veneration and all its rituals.
Religious Buildings
The Han dynasty built temples to Confucius, but temples to Confucius were replaced by the polytheistic religion Daoism.
Today it is common to find a statue of Confucius in a Chinese temple.
Home Practices
Filial piety is rooted in the homes so the home is important in Confucianism.
The relationships are taught in the home.
Clothing
Confucianism advocates that what one wears should reflect a person's standing in his/her society.
Diet
Food is offered to dead ancestors on a regular basis.
The Qing-Ming festival is a gathering where food is offered to the spirits who in turn consume the essence of the food. The food is then eaten by the gatherers. Not to eat it is a breach of filial piety.
Calendar
Confucianism maintains a traditional Chinese Calendar. It uses a lunar calendar.
The Chinese Calendar began at the onset of the Xia Dynasty, the first Chinese Dynasty. This was in 2698 BC. Thus, the year 2000 AD is year 4698 in China.
Each year is represented by an animal. There are twelve animals:
1) Rooster
2) Dog
3) Pig
4) Rat
5) Ox
6) Tiger
7) Rabbit
8) Dragon
9) Snake
10) Horse
11) Goat
12) Monkey
Chinese New Year, which falls in late January or early February, is the most important holiday.
Confucianism holds that everyone turns one year older on New Year's Day.
The Qing-Ming (spring festival) is the second most important holiday in China. It celebrates the solidarity of the family.
Confucianism has been outwardly eradicated by Westernization and the Communist State. But, Confucius' principles of submission to authority and propriety in relationships still provides the framework for Chinese culture.
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 5 - Confucianism
Name
Confucianism is named after its founder, Confucius.
Confucianism is often a way of life incorporated with other religions like Daoism and Buddhism.
Numbers and Distribution
Confucianism is not a stand alone religion, so its practitioners are nearly impossible to number.
Symbols
There are no official symbols for Confucianism.
History
Confucius lived in China from 551-479 BC.
Confucius lived in tumultuous times in China.
His father died when he was young, leaving him impoverished.
Through hard work he amazingly rose to the position of advisor to the prince of the province of Lu.
While advisor to the prince, he fell victim to the court's intrigue and spent the last 30 years of his life unemployed. He traveled throughout China his last 30 years and accumulated a vast number of disciples.
His ideas were seen as a way to restore Chinese stability.
Confucius wrote his ideas down, but were blocked by the Qin dynasty. The Han dynasty, which replaced the Qin dynasty, used Confucius' philosophy as the official philosophy of the Chinese Empire.
Confucius the man was venerated after death and became a part of China's long-standing ancestral worship practices.
Confucius' ideals have survived as the structure of Chinese society even until today.
Scriptures
Confucianism venerates all the Confucian classics, but the Analects are the most important.
Major Beliefs
"Confucianism is about how to create a flourishing society" (Corduan, 52).
Confucianism does not promote any supernatural beliefs, but does encourage people to fulfill religious obligations as a part of their moral duties.
Confucianism provides a blueprint for relationships.
Each individual has many roles in a given society. Each role has a virtue attached to it.
The most important virtue in Confucianism is filial piety. Filial piety is maintaining the honor of one's parents. Filial piety is as important in life as it is in death. There are numerous rituals to be performed by children of deceased parents.
Subgroups
There are differences in interpretation of Confucius, but there are no real subgroups in Confucianism.
Worship
There are no gods or salvation in Confucius' teachings.
He saw heaven as being the source of virtue.
Confucianism endorsed ancestor veneration and all its rituals.
Religious Buildings
The Han dynasty built temples to Confucius, but temples to Confucius were replaced by the polytheistic religion Daoism.
Today it is common to find a statue of Confucius in a Chinese temple.
Home Practices
Filial piety is rooted in the homes so the home is important in Confucianism.
The relationships are taught in the home.
Clothing
Confucianism advocates that what one wears should reflect a person's standing in his/her society.
Diet
Food is offered to dead ancestors on a regular basis.
The Qing-Ming festival is a gathering where food is offered to the spirits who in turn consume the essence of the food. The food is then eaten by the gatherers. Not to eat it is a breach of filial piety.
Calendar
Confucianism maintains a traditional Chinese Calendar. It uses a lunar calendar.
The Chinese Calendar began at the onset of the Xia Dynasty, the first Chinese Dynasty. This was in 2698 BC. Thus, the year 2000 AD is year 4698 in China.
Each year is represented by an animal. There are twelve animals:
1) Rooster
2) Dog
3) Pig
4) Rat
5) Ox
6) Tiger
7) Rabbit
8) Dragon
9) Snake
10) Horse
11) Goat
12) Monkey
Chinese New Year, which falls in late January or early February, is the most important holiday.
Confucianism holds that everyone turns one year older on New Year's Day.
The Qing-Ming (spring festival) is the second most important holiday in China. It celebrates the solidarity of the family.
Confucianism has been outwardly eradicated by Westernization and the Communist State. But, Confucius' principles of submission to authority and propriety in relationships still provides the framework for Chinese culture.
Saturday, July 1, 2006
Bacchus & Orphics
(Originally Written July 1, 2006 in Book 2)
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
1974
Commerce initially arose as piracy.
Writing came to the Greeks via piracy and commerce. It came from the Phoenicians (whose alphabet was derivative of Egypt). Greeks added vowels to the Phoenician alphabet. Writing quickened the rise of Ancient Greece.
Homer was the first product of Greece of real merit. He became a staple of Greek learning in Athens and later, all of Greece.
Homer's writings showed the best of Greek religion (the gods of Olympus), but more savage religious cults lay in wait throughout Ancient Greece, coming out in times of weakness and terror.
Primitive religion was tribal, not personal.
Homer's gods were very human, his religion, not very religious. These gods were as or less moral than men.
Fate, necessity and destiny were the objects of utmost power in Homeric religion. Even Zeus was subject to them.
The Olympian gods were never said to create the world, only to subdue and conquer it.
Homer's heroes (men) were as unbehaving as the swashbuckling gods who ruled with indifference to humanity.
When the Homeric epics took their present form, in the late 6th century BC, science, philosophy and mathematics were being born in Greece. Confucius, Buddha and Zoroaster lived in this century (allegedly). Cyrus established Persia in the 6th century as well.
The Philosophers endured to escape Persian domination, spreading the enlightened Greek civilization to the Hellenic world.
While Greece eventually fought off the Persians only a few cities advanced all the independent Greek city-states:
1. Sparta - military
2. Corinth - commerce & wealth
3. Arcadia - agriculture
Arcadia was supposedly an idyllic paradise, but it was truly ghastly in their barbaric ways.
1. The bull was too expensive in fertility cults, so the goat replaced it.
2. A clan of self-proclaimed werewolves terrorized with human sacrifice and cannibalism
3. Even Zeus was portrayed as a werewolf: Zeus Lykaios.
Superstition reigned in Arcadia and flourished throughout ancient times.
Religion, as we now perceive it, was not connected to the Olympic gods but to Dionysus or Bacchus. Bacchus was the god of wine and drunkenness. Bacchus originated as a fertility god of Thrace. When the Thracians invented beer they perceived intoxication as divine and attributed it to Bacchus. When wine was invented later, the Thracians loved Bacchus even more.
The cult of Bacchus was not received well by the orthodox of Greece, but was nonetheless established.
Bacchus worship involved ecstasy, brought about by intoxication; partly due to alcohol, but mainly due to mystic frenzy. It was both beautiful and savage.
Greece gravitated to the primitive and instinctive nature of Bacchus that freed them from strict Greek morality.
"The civilized man is distinguished from the savage mainly by prudence, or, to use a slightly wider term, forethought" (Russell, 15).
Foresight is working for benefits later and not being controlled by impulses. Impulses are checked by civilization via foresight (self-check), religion, law and custom.
Private property brought about the subjection of women and the creation of a slave class.
Prudence involves sacrificing the present to the future without extremeness. Prudence can easily destroy some of the best things in life.
Bacchus worship is a complete rejection of prudence. Intoxication (physical or spiritual) recovers intensity destroyed by prudence. The world is beautiful and full of delight and the imagination is free from the prison of prudence.
Bacchic rituals produced enthusiasm, which etymologically means "having the god enter into the worshipper, who believed that he became one with the god" (Russell, 16).
Most achievements of men include some form of Bacchic practice of passions overrunning prudence. Bacchus worship is dangerous to life, yet it makes life interesting.
Sober civilization is akin to science. Science itself is dull and not satisfying. Man needs art, passion and religion. Science sets limit on knowledge, not on imagination.
Greek philosophy produced both scientific philosophers and religious philosophers. Plato and Christianity (via Neo-Platonism) fall into the latter category.
The ancient religion of Bacchus was barbaric and repulsive. The form that influenced philosophy was ascetic as it replaced physical intoxication with a mental form. It was spiritualized by Orpheus.
Orpheus is believed to have come from Crete. Egypt influenced Crete, Crete then Greece. Egyptian influence in Greece came indirectly via Crete. Orpheus was a priest/philosopher.
Orpheus is not well-known or certain to have existed, but the religion bearing his name certainly did: the Orphics.
The Orphics believed in:
1) The Transmigration of souls
2) that the soul may receive eternal bliss, temporary punishment or eternal punishment based on one's earthly life
3) purification rituals
4) man was partly of earth, partly of heaven
5) Through purification a man can become one with Bacchus
Orphic tablets gave instructions for the after-life to the dead.
Orphics were ascetic
They sought intoxication solely through enthusiasm.
The Cult of Bacchus was reformed by Orpheous, the Orphic religion by Pythagoras, Pythagoras by Plato and most religious philosophy has incorporated Plato.
Bacchic elements are everywhere in Greek culture:
1) Pythagoras & Plato - feminism
2) Greek Tragedies - pure emotional instictiveness
3) Euripides
4) Athens - The Eleusinian Mysteries
To the Orphic, life is pain and weariness. Their true life was in the stars, but they were bound to the earth. This cycle was ceaseless. The only hope of escape was through purification via asceticism.
A large portion of the Greeks were "passionate, unhappy, at war with themselves, driven along one road by the intellect and along another by the passions, with the imagination to conceive heaven and the willful self-assertion that creates hell" (Russell, 23).
Religious Greeks embraced Orphic religion; rational Greeks despised it.
Russell then goes on to condemn not only Ancient Greek religion, but religion itself: "It looked as if Greek religion were about to enter on the same stage as that already reached by the religions of the East; and, but for the rise of science, it is hard to see what could have checked this tendency. It is usual to say that the Greeks were saved from a religion of the Oriental type by their having no priesthood; but this is to mistake the effect for the cause. Priesthoods do not make dogmas, though they preserve them once they are made; an in the earlier stages of their development, the Oriental peoples had no priesthoods either in the sense intended. It was not so much the absence of a priesthood as the existence of the scientific schools that saved Greece" (Russell, 23).
The Orphics founded 'churches'. The Olympic cults did not. It was the founding of 'churches' that influenced the conception of philosophy as a way of life.
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
1974
Commerce initially arose as piracy.
Writing came to the Greeks via piracy and commerce. It came from the Phoenicians (whose alphabet was derivative of Egypt). Greeks added vowels to the Phoenician alphabet. Writing quickened the rise of Ancient Greece.
Homer was the first product of Greece of real merit. He became a staple of Greek learning in Athens and later, all of Greece.
Homer's writings showed the best of Greek religion (the gods of Olympus), but more savage religious cults lay in wait throughout Ancient Greece, coming out in times of weakness and terror.
Primitive religion was tribal, not personal.
Homer's gods were very human, his religion, not very religious. These gods were as or less moral than men.
Fate, necessity and destiny were the objects of utmost power in Homeric religion. Even Zeus was subject to them.
The Olympian gods were never said to create the world, only to subdue and conquer it.
Homer's heroes (men) were as unbehaving as the swashbuckling gods who ruled with indifference to humanity.
When the Homeric epics took their present form, in the late 6th century BC, science, philosophy and mathematics were being born in Greece. Confucius, Buddha and Zoroaster lived in this century (allegedly). Cyrus established Persia in the 6th century as well.
The Philosophers endured to escape Persian domination, spreading the enlightened Greek civilization to the Hellenic world.
While Greece eventually fought off the Persians only a few cities advanced all the independent Greek city-states:
1. Sparta - military
2. Corinth - commerce & wealth
3. Arcadia - agriculture
Arcadia was supposedly an idyllic paradise, but it was truly ghastly in their barbaric ways.
1. The bull was too expensive in fertility cults, so the goat replaced it.
2. A clan of self-proclaimed werewolves terrorized with human sacrifice and cannibalism
3. Even Zeus was portrayed as a werewolf: Zeus Lykaios.
Superstition reigned in Arcadia and flourished throughout ancient times.
Religion, as we now perceive it, was not connected to the Olympic gods but to Dionysus or Bacchus. Bacchus was the god of wine and drunkenness. Bacchus originated as a fertility god of Thrace. When the Thracians invented beer they perceived intoxication as divine and attributed it to Bacchus. When wine was invented later, the Thracians loved Bacchus even more.
The cult of Bacchus was not received well by the orthodox of Greece, but was nonetheless established.
Bacchus worship involved ecstasy, brought about by intoxication; partly due to alcohol, but mainly due to mystic frenzy. It was both beautiful and savage.
Greece gravitated to the primitive and instinctive nature of Bacchus that freed them from strict Greek morality.
"The civilized man is distinguished from the savage mainly by prudence, or, to use a slightly wider term, forethought" (Russell, 15).
Foresight is working for benefits later and not being controlled by impulses. Impulses are checked by civilization via foresight (self-check), religion, law and custom.
Private property brought about the subjection of women and the creation of a slave class.
Prudence involves sacrificing the present to the future without extremeness. Prudence can easily destroy some of the best things in life.
Bacchus worship is a complete rejection of prudence. Intoxication (physical or spiritual) recovers intensity destroyed by prudence. The world is beautiful and full of delight and the imagination is free from the prison of prudence.
Bacchic rituals produced enthusiasm, which etymologically means "having the god enter into the worshipper, who believed that he became one with the god" (Russell, 16).
Most achievements of men include some form of Bacchic practice of passions overrunning prudence. Bacchus worship is dangerous to life, yet it makes life interesting.
Sober civilization is akin to science. Science itself is dull and not satisfying. Man needs art, passion and religion. Science sets limit on knowledge, not on imagination.
Greek philosophy produced both scientific philosophers and religious philosophers. Plato and Christianity (via Neo-Platonism) fall into the latter category.
The ancient religion of Bacchus was barbaric and repulsive. The form that influenced philosophy was ascetic as it replaced physical intoxication with a mental form. It was spiritualized by Orpheus.
Orpheus is believed to have come from Crete. Egypt influenced Crete, Crete then Greece. Egyptian influence in Greece came indirectly via Crete. Orpheus was a priest/philosopher.
Orpheus is not well-known or certain to have existed, but the religion bearing his name certainly did: the Orphics.
The Orphics believed in:
1) The Transmigration of souls
2) that the soul may receive eternal bliss, temporary punishment or eternal punishment based on one's earthly life
3) purification rituals
4) man was partly of earth, partly of heaven
5) Through purification a man can become one with Bacchus
Orphic tablets gave instructions for the after-life to the dead.
Orphics were ascetic
They sought intoxication solely through enthusiasm.
The Cult of Bacchus was reformed by Orpheous, the Orphic religion by Pythagoras, Pythagoras by Plato and most religious philosophy has incorporated Plato.
Bacchic elements are everywhere in Greek culture:
1) Pythagoras & Plato - feminism
2) Greek Tragedies - pure emotional instictiveness
3) Euripides
4) Athens - The Eleusinian Mysteries
To the Orphic, life is pain and weariness. Their true life was in the stars, but they were bound to the earth. This cycle was ceaseless. The only hope of escape was through purification via asceticism.
A large portion of the Greeks were "passionate, unhappy, at war with themselves, driven along one road by the intellect and along another by the passions, with the imagination to conceive heaven and the willful self-assertion that creates hell" (Russell, 23).
Religious Greeks embraced Orphic religion; rational Greeks despised it.
Russell then goes on to condemn not only Ancient Greek religion, but religion itself: "It looked as if Greek religion were about to enter on the same stage as that already reached by the religions of the East; and, but for the rise of science, it is hard to see what could have checked this tendency. It is usual to say that the Greeks were saved from a religion of the Oriental type by their having no priesthood; but this is to mistake the effect for the cause. Priesthoods do not make dogmas, though they preserve them once they are made; an in the earlier stages of their development, the Oriental peoples had no priesthoods either in the sense intended. It was not so much the absence of a priesthood as the existence of the scientific schools that saved Greece" (Russell, 23).
The Orphics founded 'churches'. The Olympic cults did not. It was the founding of 'churches' that influenced the conception of philosophy as a way of life.
Tuesday, January 31, 2006
Why Study Ethics?
(Originally written January 31, 2006)
Book Notes
Moral Choices: Preface Ch. 1
Publishers Preface
Ethics and morality are increasingly difficult to teach in the 21st century.
Chapter 1
Why Study Ethics?
If there were no consequences would a person want to be moral? "Plato concluded that being moral was inherently valuable, apart form any additional benefits it produced or harm that it enabled a person to avoid" (11).
"One of the principal reasons for being moral is that it is central to most concepts of human fulfillment. For the Christian, being moral is critical to a life that seeks to honor God" (11).
Being moral is inherently good because it is part of the foundation of a person's ability to success.
It is unlikely that a civilization could continue without moral values like fairness, justice, truthfulness and compassion.
Ethics are important because they give direction to people and societies.
Today there is a breakdown in morality among young people and students.
Moral questions are at the root of all of life's most important issues.
Morality is concerned with the questions of right and wrong; the ability to discern between them and justify the choice.
Moral choices are faced every day
Ethics provide the basis on which to make moral choices.
"The basis on which you make moral choices is often as important as the choices themselves" (12).
Big topics of debate stem from the fundamental differences opinion on where ultimate moral authority comes from. Some believe it is a man made institution while others hold that moral authority stems from a higher power.
Society has a sense of bewilderment over some moral issues.
Many of these are due to technology's advancement outpacing society's ability to determine the moral parameters of them.
More people are taking an interest in Ethics today than ever for a number of reasons:
1) Technology's creation of issues
2) Declining morals in society
3) The lack of business ethics and scandals
4) The failure of value-neutral education. "Some even suggest that such value neutrality is impossible" (13).
Rae believes that morality comes from the character of God.
God provides these morality laws:
1) In the Bible (special revelation)
2) Out of the Bible (general revelation)
Morality refers to the actual content of right and wrong, whereas ethics is the process of determining what is right and wrong.
4 Categories of ethics:
1) Descriptive ethics - sociological discipline that attempts to describe the morals of society
2) Normative ethics - discipline that attempts to produce moral norms or rules. Basically it prescribes moral behavior
3) Metaethics - discipline that investigates the meaning of moral language. Also considers the justification of ethical theories and judgments
4) Aretaic ethics - category of ethics that focuses on the virtues produced in people, not the morality of specific acts.
Making a moral judgment involves four considerations:
1) The action itself
2) The motive behind the action
3) The consequence of the action
4) The character of who performs the action
Character - the tendency of a person to act in a predictable way over time
Two types of Ethical systems:
1) Action-oriented systems
2) Virtue-based systems
Under these two major divisions there are three subcategories
1) Deontological systems
2) Teleological systems
3) Relativism
Deontological systems - are systems based on principles in which actions, or character, or intentions are inherently right or wrong. Three types:
1) Divine command theory
2) Natural Law
3) Ethical rationalism
Teleological systems (ends justify the means) - are systems based on the end result produced by an action. If the action produces more beneficial consequences than harmful ones then it is moral. If not, then it is immoral. The primary form of teleological ethics is utilitarianism.
Utilitarianism holds that the action that produces the greatest good for the greatest numbers is the moral action.
Ethical egoism - another form of teleological ethics which maintains that the moral act is whatever is in a person's own best interest.
Relativism is an ethical system in which right and wrong are not absolute and unchanging but they are relative to one's culture or one's own personal preferences.
Social and Person Ethics: "The nature of Morality
Definition of ethics:
1) Individual character, including what it means to be a good person
2) The social rules that govern and limit our conduct, especially morality.
Definition of morality: the ultimate rules concerning right and wrong
Morality refers to what is right and wrong, good and bad; ethics is the study and assessment of those standards.
Moral standards are different than other standards because they concern behavior that is of serious consequence to human welfare.
Moral standards take priority over other standards. We take moral standards, judgments as more conclusive when put up against non-moral standards.
Moral standards' soundness depends on the adequacy of the reasons that justify them.
Unlike other standards, moral standards are not decided by an authoritative body.
Etiquette - The norms of correct conduct in polite society.
In etiquette the terms, "good, wrong, right and bad" are judgments, not ethics.
The terms legal and moral are not interchangeable.
1) An action can be illegal, but morally right
2) An action that is legal can be immoral.
Professional codes are ethical codes within a given field or profession.
These codes are not an end all scope of morality and some of the ethics of that code are not moral standards. Some of the ethics of the code are not necessarily morally right.
Our moral principles come from many different sources: upbringing, our surrounding people, behavior, explicit and implicit standards of our culture, our own experiences and our critical reflection on those experiences all shape what we see as moral.
The philosophical goal of finding the origin of morals is to see if a moral standard can stand up to critical tests.
Some say morals are synonymous with religion while others argue for the doctrine of ethical relativism.
All religions provide its believers with certain moral instructions, values and commitments.
Religion involves not only formal systems of worship, but also prescriptions for social relationships.
An example of this is the Golden Rule, which is found in all the great religions of the world:
Hinduism - "Good people proceed while considering that what is best for others is best for themselves" (Hitopadehsa)
Judaism - "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself (Leviticus)
Christianity - Matthew 7:12, What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others
Confucianism: Analects 15:23
Islam - "No one of you is a believer until he loves for his brother what he loves for himself" (Traditions)
Although these religious ideals are very inspiring, they are difficult to translate into precise policy instructions.
Religious bodies occasionally articulate positions on more specific political, educational, economic and medical issues. These help mold public opinion on matters as diverse as abortion, euthanasia, nuclear weapons and national defense.
"Morality needn't rest on religion" (8)
Many people believe that morality must be based on religion for two reasons:
1) Without religion people would have no incentive to be moral
2) Only religion can provide moral guidance
3) Morality is based on the commands of God
Often people act morally simply because they are accustomed to acting that way or because it is in their character to act so.
"We are often motivated to do what is morally right out of concern for others or just because it is right" (8) [Untrue, humanity is very selfish by nature]
Other reasons for acting or living morally good lives include:
1) approval of peers
2) the need to appease our conscience
3) drive to avoid punishment
"Atheist generally live lives as moral and upright as those of believers" [Sad but true]
The moral instruction of the world's great religions are general and imprecise.
The divine command theory states that if something is wrong it is only wrong because God commands us not to do it. (Most philosophers and theologians reject this view)
It is impossible to justify a moral principle by only appealing to religion.
Ethical relativism does not hold that religion supplies moral principles. They are supplied by what a particular society believes.
This creates an atmosphere that allows for something to be right in one place and wrong in another.
There is no moral absolute outside of cultural context in ethical relativism.
There is no and can be no non-ethnocentric standard by which to judge actions in ethical relativism.
Ethical relativism undermines any moral criticism of other societies as long as their actions conform to their own standards.
There is no such thing as ethical progress in ethical relativism. Morality changes, but it does not get better or worse.
It is impossible for people to criticize principles or practices accepted in their own society in ethical relativism. All that can happen is people can be criticized for not living up to the moral standards of their society.
Ethical relativism makes reformers of society immoral persons for calling out injustices.
The more ethical relativism is examined, the more obvious it becomes that it is flawed.
Accepting and practicing on a moral principle involves consideration of a desire to follow that principle for its own sake, the likelihood of feeling guilty of not following it, and a tendency to evaluate the conduct of others according to that principle.
It would be difficult to believe that a person held a moral principle if they continue to violate that principle with no ill effects on their conscience.
Conscience is a complex psychological development of people internalizing moral values that were instilled in them as young children.
The problem with conscience is it is not always morally right.
Sometimes doing what is morally right and doing what is in your base interest come into conflict.
"Morality serves to restrain our purely self-interested desires so we can all live together" (12).
Normally following our own moral principles is in our best interest, however if following moral principles is motivated by expecting a payoff is not really moral.
Deciding to follow your self-interest or deciding to follow your moral principles when they come into conflict depend on the strength of those entities.
The paradox of hedonism is that people who always follow their own self-interest principles tend to live less happy and less fulfilling lives.
Book Notes
Moral Choices: Preface Ch. 1
Publishers Preface
Ethics and morality are increasingly difficult to teach in the 21st century.
Chapter 1
Why Study Ethics?
If there were no consequences would a person want to be moral? "Plato concluded that being moral was inherently valuable, apart form any additional benefits it produced or harm that it enabled a person to avoid" (11).
"One of the principal reasons for being moral is that it is central to most concepts of human fulfillment. For the Christian, being moral is critical to a life that seeks to honor God" (11).
Being moral is inherently good because it is part of the foundation of a person's ability to success.
It is unlikely that a civilization could continue without moral values like fairness, justice, truthfulness and compassion.
Ethics are important because they give direction to people and societies.
Today there is a breakdown in morality among young people and students.
Moral questions are at the root of all of life's most important issues.
Morality is concerned with the questions of right and wrong; the ability to discern between them and justify the choice.
Moral choices are faced every day
Ethics provide the basis on which to make moral choices.
"The basis on which you make moral choices is often as important as the choices themselves" (12).
Big topics of debate stem from the fundamental differences opinion on where ultimate moral authority comes from. Some believe it is a man made institution while others hold that moral authority stems from a higher power.
Society has a sense of bewilderment over some moral issues.
Many of these are due to technology's advancement outpacing society's ability to determine the moral parameters of them.
More people are taking an interest in Ethics today than ever for a number of reasons:
1) Technology's creation of issues
2) Declining morals in society
3) The lack of business ethics and scandals
4) The failure of value-neutral education. "Some even suggest that such value neutrality is impossible" (13).
Rae believes that morality comes from the character of God.
God provides these morality laws:
1) In the Bible (special revelation)
2) Out of the Bible (general revelation)
Morality refers to the actual content of right and wrong, whereas ethics is the process of determining what is right and wrong.
4 Categories of ethics:
1) Descriptive ethics - sociological discipline that attempts to describe the morals of society
2) Normative ethics - discipline that attempts to produce moral norms or rules. Basically it prescribes moral behavior
3) Metaethics - discipline that investigates the meaning of moral language. Also considers the justification of ethical theories and judgments
4) Aretaic ethics - category of ethics that focuses on the virtues produced in people, not the morality of specific acts.
Making a moral judgment involves four considerations:
1) The action itself
2) The motive behind the action
3) The consequence of the action
4) The character of who performs the action
Character - the tendency of a person to act in a predictable way over time
Two types of Ethical systems:
1) Action-oriented systems
2) Virtue-based systems
Under these two major divisions there are three subcategories
1) Deontological systems
2) Teleological systems
3) Relativism
Deontological systems - are systems based on principles in which actions, or character, or intentions are inherently right or wrong. Three types:
1) Divine command theory
2) Natural Law
3) Ethical rationalism
Teleological systems (ends justify the means) - are systems based on the end result produced by an action. If the action produces more beneficial consequences than harmful ones then it is moral. If not, then it is immoral. The primary form of teleological ethics is utilitarianism.
Utilitarianism holds that the action that produces the greatest good for the greatest numbers is the moral action.
Ethical egoism - another form of teleological ethics which maintains that the moral act is whatever is in a person's own best interest.
Relativism is an ethical system in which right and wrong are not absolute and unchanging but they are relative to one's culture or one's own personal preferences.
Social and Person Ethics: "The nature of Morality
Definition of ethics:
1) Individual character, including what it means to be a good person
2) The social rules that govern and limit our conduct, especially morality.
Definition of morality: the ultimate rules concerning right and wrong
Morality refers to what is right and wrong, good and bad; ethics is the study and assessment of those standards.
Moral standards are different than other standards because they concern behavior that is of serious consequence to human welfare.
Moral standards take priority over other standards. We take moral standards, judgments as more conclusive when put up against non-moral standards.
Moral standards' soundness depends on the adequacy of the reasons that justify them.
Unlike other standards, moral standards are not decided by an authoritative body.
Etiquette - The norms of correct conduct in polite society.
In etiquette the terms, "good, wrong, right and bad" are judgments, not ethics.
The terms legal and moral are not interchangeable.
1) An action can be illegal, but morally right
2) An action that is legal can be immoral.
Professional codes are ethical codes within a given field or profession.
These codes are not an end all scope of morality and some of the ethics of that code are not moral standards. Some of the ethics of the code are not necessarily morally right.
Our moral principles come from many different sources: upbringing, our surrounding people, behavior, explicit and implicit standards of our culture, our own experiences and our critical reflection on those experiences all shape what we see as moral.
The philosophical goal of finding the origin of morals is to see if a moral standard can stand up to critical tests.
Some say morals are synonymous with religion while others argue for the doctrine of ethical relativism.
All religions provide its believers with certain moral instructions, values and commitments.
Religion involves not only formal systems of worship, but also prescriptions for social relationships.
An example of this is the Golden Rule, which is found in all the great religions of the world:
Hinduism - "Good people proceed while considering that what is best for others is best for themselves" (Hitopadehsa)
Judaism - "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself (Leviticus)
Christianity - Matthew 7:12, What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others
Confucianism: Analects 15:23
Islam - "No one of you is a believer until he loves for his brother what he loves for himself" (Traditions)
Although these religious ideals are very inspiring, they are difficult to translate into precise policy instructions.
Religious bodies occasionally articulate positions on more specific political, educational, economic and medical issues. These help mold public opinion on matters as diverse as abortion, euthanasia, nuclear weapons and national defense.
"Morality needn't rest on religion" (8)
Many people believe that morality must be based on religion for two reasons:
1) Without religion people would have no incentive to be moral
2) Only religion can provide moral guidance
3) Morality is based on the commands of God
Often people act morally simply because they are accustomed to acting that way or because it is in their character to act so.
"We are often motivated to do what is morally right out of concern for others or just because it is right" (8) [Untrue, humanity is very selfish by nature]
Other reasons for acting or living morally good lives include:
1) approval of peers
2) the need to appease our conscience
3) drive to avoid punishment
"Atheist generally live lives as moral and upright as those of believers" [Sad but true]
The moral instruction of the world's great religions are general and imprecise.
The divine command theory states that if something is wrong it is only wrong because God commands us not to do it. (Most philosophers and theologians reject this view)
It is impossible to justify a moral principle by only appealing to religion.
Ethical relativism does not hold that religion supplies moral principles. They are supplied by what a particular society believes.
This creates an atmosphere that allows for something to be right in one place and wrong in another.
There is no moral absolute outside of cultural context in ethical relativism.
There is no and can be no non-ethnocentric standard by which to judge actions in ethical relativism.
Ethical relativism undermines any moral criticism of other societies as long as their actions conform to their own standards.
There is no such thing as ethical progress in ethical relativism. Morality changes, but it does not get better or worse.
It is impossible for people to criticize principles or practices accepted in their own society in ethical relativism. All that can happen is people can be criticized for not living up to the moral standards of their society.
Ethical relativism makes reformers of society immoral persons for calling out injustices.
The more ethical relativism is examined, the more obvious it becomes that it is flawed.
Accepting and practicing on a moral principle involves consideration of a desire to follow that principle for its own sake, the likelihood of feeling guilty of not following it, and a tendency to evaluate the conduct of others according to that principle.
It would be difficult to believe that a person held a moral principle if they continue to violate that principle with no ill effects on their conscience.
Conscience is a complex psychological development of people internalizing moral values that were instilled in them as young children.
The problem with conscience is it is not always morally right.
Sometimes doing what is morally right and doing what is in your base interest come into conflict.
"Morality serves to restrain our purely self-interested desires so we can all live together" (12).
Normally following our own moral principles is in our best interest, however if following moral principles is motivated by expecting a payoff is not really moral.
Deciding to follow your self-interest or deciding to follow your moral principles when they come into conflict depend on the strength of those entities.
The paradox of hedonism is that people who always follow their own self-interest principles tend to live less happy and less fulfilling lives.
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