(Originally written April 29, 2007 in Book 15)
The Future in Eastern Religions
Hinduism
Hinduism conceives time as cyclical. Currently we are living in the last age of the last era, the Kali Yuga.
At the close of this era Kalki will appear. Kali is the 10th and final incarnation of Vishnu. Kali will convert the whole world to the dharma and destroy Yama, the god of death.
Kalki and other Indic messiahs do not bring about the end of time. They only initiate the end of an age.
Eliade points out salvation is constituted by an escape from time, not a culmination of time.
Buddhism
The Bodhisattva (Buddha-in-waiting) Maitreya vowed to return as the Buddha of the next age.
Maitreya will bring about a time of universal enlightenment.
After the time of Maitreya a new era will follow and the cycle will restart.
Jainism
The final age will be the dusama dusama, a period of abject misery, no Tirthankaras, no religion and universal suffering.
Time then will begin ascending upwards again.
There will be 25 new Tirthankaras (counterparts to the other 25).
Salvation in Jainism is found in the escape from time.
The Future in Christianity
Christianity was born of fulfilled messianic expectations.
Christians used other Old Testament Messianic prophesies to corroborate the idea that Christ will come again.
Christianity possesses a powerful notion of now and not-yet.
Jesus Christ is central to Christianity in both the historical and spiritual dimensions.
Christ has four roles:
1) Teacher
2) Redeemer
3) Mystical Reality
4) Future King
The incarnation of God in Christ is different than any incarnation of a god in any other religion.
Other religions have incarnations, i.e. the avatars of Vishnu. But these are docetism incarnations.
Docetism was an early Christian heresy which claimed Christ only appeared to be human.
Christianity holds that "Jesus is fully God, but also fully human, and he has not abdicated either nature" (Corduan, 192).
Authentication: The Crucial Issue
20th century Apologetics devised the Legend-Lunatic-Liar-Lord argument about Jesus and who he said he was.
The Jews of the 1st century had no problem in accepting Jesus as supernatural but saw him as evil. The Jews put Jesus to death because they saw him as demonic.
Showing posts with label Jainism. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Jainism. Show all posts
Sunday, April 29, 2007
Monday, April 23, 2007
Eschatology in various religions
(Originally written April 23, 2007 in Book 15)
Chapter 7: Eschatology & Hope for the Future
Time plays crucial and different roles in various religions.
A Geometry of Time
The modern secular view of time is entirely linear. Time is a sequence of moments.
Most believe that time had some origin (whatever they claim it to be), but others like the physicist Stephen Hawkins deny that time has a beginning or an end.
Conversely, the Western monotheistic religions believe time has both a beginning and an end. In addition Judaism, Christianity, Islam and Zoroastrianism each have a mid point.
Pre-literate cultures believe that (according to Mircea Eliade) time was not linear, but circular. Time in our world mirrored the "time of the gods".
Eliade makes notice that as cultures move from preliterate to literate they drop the circular conception of, but not wholly. Anniversaries, holidays and birthdays are hold overs from circular time conceptions.
Eliade notes that archaic people (pre-Literates) have no hope or notion of the future. Likewise pure secularists have no hope for the future because they deny any telos (goal/end) for time.
Jainism's conception of time is divided into six ages and moves from best to worst then worst to best again.
Hinduism believes time is cyclical.
Buddhism also has a cyclical conception of time.
The Future in Traditional Religion
In African culture there are two modes of time:
1) Sasa - time of every day events
2) Zamani - Mythological time
People like in sass time. When they are born they are actualized into sass. When they die that actualization is completed and the process of de-actualization begins. As the ones who know them slowly die off the dead move further from the sasa into the zamani. Eventually they are engulfed in Zamani time.
Zamani gives purpose to sasa, but does not extend it.
The Christianization of Africa has taken two forms:
1) A traditional European style
2) A syncretism of traditional African religion and Christianity (independent churches).
The "independent churches" of Africa have adopted an eschatology, thus giving them hope for the future which traditional African conceptions of time denied them.
The Future in Western Religions
The future of Western Religions is tied into their messianic figures.
Judaism
Judaism had several messianic expectations by the time of Christ. Many the Messiah would liberate the Jews from Roman oppression and reestablish Israel.
The Essenes at Qumran expected at least two messiahs: a messianic king and a messianic priest.
The Saducees and the ruling priests might not have anticipated a messiah at all.
The messiah was expected to be human, but equal to God's first created being, the angel Metatron.
Also, the messiah would be the Son of David and heir to the throne.
The messiah would restore Israel politically and spiritually.
The messiah would liberate Jews from oppression.
Judaism has had a history of messianic pretenders. Bar Kokhba in the 2nd century and Sabbatai Zevi in the 17th century are the most notable two.
The Hasidic movement has shied away from claiming messianic status of their leaders and even opposed the creation of the modern state of Israel because they believed it was blasphemous to have Israel without a messianic king.
Reform Jews have given up the search for a Messiah.
Islam
Islam hopes for the Mahdi (the right guided one) as the last messenger of Allah.
The Mahdi is based on the Hadith, not the Qur'an.
The majority of Muslims are Sunni muslims and do not have a specific Mahdi theology.
The Shi'ite Muslims believe the Mahdi has a theological role.
Jesus Christ is the second most important prophet in Islam. Islam believes that Christ will return before the judgment and lead the faithful in prayer. But usually Jesus is not considered the Mahdi.
Shi'ite muslims claimed that the imams had the same spiritual authority as Muhammad. They have a super human standing.
The last imam to have this authority, according to the Shi'ites did not die, but went into hiding. He will return as the Mahdi.
Islam has had a number of Mahdi pretenders.
Umar II, one of the caliphs of the Umayyad dynasty was revered as the Mahdi for a while.
Mohammad Ahmad in the 19th century sought to overthrow the Ottoman Empire from Sudan. He claimed to be the Mahdi. His revolution was put down by the Turks, the British and a counter-Mahdi, Sanusi Al-Mahdi.
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian claimed to be the Mahdi, the second coming of Christ and an avatar of Krishna. There are two groups that follow his teaching still.
Baha'i began as an offshoot of Shi'ites.
The Bab claimed to be the Mahdi in 1844.
Baha'ullah declared himself to be the successor of the Bab and established Baha'i.
In the future another manifestation of God will follow if there needs to be one.
Zoroastrianism
Zoroaster is to be succeeded every 1,000 years by his direct descendants.
Three times, a thousand years apart, a virgin will bathe in the lake and become impersonated with his sperm.
Aushetar, Aushetar mah, and Saoshyant will be born as prophets like Zoroaster. Saoshyant will restore true religion and usher in the purification of all human beings.
Chapter 7: Eschatology & Hope for the Future
Time plays crucial and different roles in various religions.
A Geometry of Time
The modern secular view of time is entirely linear. Time is a sequence of moments.
Most believe that time had some origin (whatever they claim it to be), but others like the physicist Stephen Hawkins deny that time has a beginning or an end.
Conversely, the Western monotheistic religions believe time has both a beginning and an end. In addition Judaism, Christianity, Islam and Zoroastrianism each have a mid point.
Pre-literate cultures believe that (according to Mircea Eliade) time was not linear, but circular. Time in our world mirrored the "time of the gods".
Eliade makes notice that as cultures move from preliterate to literate they drop the circular conception of, but not wholly. Anniversaries, holidays and birthdays are hold overs from circular time conceptions.
Eliade notes that archaic people (pre-Literates) have no hope or notion of the future. Likewise pure secularists have no hope for the future because they deny any telos (goal/end) for time.
Jainism's conception of time is divided into six ages and moves from best to worst then worst to best again.
Hinduism believes time is cyclical.
Buddhism also has a cyclical conception of time.
The Future in Traditional Religion
In African culture there are two modes of time:
1) Sasa - time of every day events
2) Zamani - Mythological time
People like in sass time. When they are born they are actualized into sass. When they die that actualization is completed and the process of de-actualization begins. As the ones who know them slowly die off the dead move further from the sasa into the zamani. Eventually they are engulfed in Zamani time.
Zamani gives purpose to sasa, but does not extend it.
The Christianization of Africa has taken two forms:
1) A traditional European style
2) A syncretism of traditional African religion and Christianity (independent churches).
The "independent churches" of Africa have adopted an eschatology, thus giving them hope for the future which traditional African conceptions of time denied them.
The Future in Western Religions
The future of Western Religions is tied into their messianic figures.
Judaism
Judaism had several messianic expectations by the time of Christ. Many the Messiah would liberate the Jews from Roman oppression and reestablish Israel.
The Essenes at Qumran expected at least two messiahs: a messianic king and a messianic priest.
The Saducees and the ruling priests might not have anticipated a messiah at all.
The messiah was expected to be human, but equal to God's first created being, the angel Metatron.
Also, the messiah would be the Son of David and heir to the throne.
The messiah would restore Israel politically and spiritually.
The messiah would liberate Jews from oppression.
Judaism has had a history of messianic pretenders. Bar Kokhba in the 2nd century and Sabbatai Zevi in the 17th century are the most notable two.
The Hasidic movement has shied away from claiming messianic status of their leaders and even opposed the creation of the modern state of Israel because they believed it was blasphemous to have Israel without a messianic king.
Reform Jews have given up the search for a Messiah.
Islam
Islam hopes for the Mahdi (the right guided one) as the last messenger of Allah.
The Mahdi is based on the Hadith, not the Qur'an.
The majority of Muslims are Sunni muslims and do not have a specific Mahdi theology.
The Shi'ite Muslims believe the Mahdi has a theological role.
Jesus Christ is the second most important prophet in Islam. Islam believes that Christ will return before the judgment and lead the faithful in prayer. But usually Jesus is not considered the Mahdi.
Shi'ite muslims claimed that the imams had the same spiritual authority as Muhammad. They have a super human standing.
The last imam to have this authority, according to the Shi'ites did not die, but went into hiding. He will return as the Mahdi.
Islam has had a number of Mahdi pretenders.
Umar II, one of the caliphs of the Umayyad dynasty was revered as the Mahdi for a while.
Mohammad Ahmad in the 19th century sought to overthrow the Ottoman Empire from Sudan. He claimed to be the Mahdi. His revolution was put down by the Turks, the British and a counter-Mahdi, Sanusi Al-Mahdi.
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian claimed to be the Mahdi, the second coming of Christ and an avatar of Krishna. There are two groups that follow his teaching still.
Baha'i began as an offshoot of Shi'ites.
The Bab claimed to be the Mahdi in 1844.
Baha'ullah declared himself to be the successor of the Bab and established Baha'i.
In the future another manifestation of God will follow if there needs to be one.
Zoroastrianism
Zoroaster is to be succeeded every 1,000 years by his direct descendants.
Three times, a thousand years apart, a virgin will bathe in the lake and become impersonated with his sperm.
Aushetar, Aushetar mah, and Saoshyant will be born as prophets like Zoroaster. Saoshyant will restore true religion and usher in the purification of all human beings.
Tuesday, April 17, 2007
Class notes on grace & redemption
(Originally written April 17, 2007 in Book 15)
Class Notes
The Grace & Redemption Debate
Is Christianity the only way?
Response - the only way to what?
Salvation means different things in different religions.
Salvation meaning:
Christianity -> Atonement
Islam -> Test of Obedience
Zoroastrianism -> Dualism
Hindu Vedanta -> Atman = Brahman
Hindu Bhakti -> Reliance on deity
Buddhism -> Nirvana
Jainism -> Floating to the top
Jodo Shin-Shu -> Escape to Pure Land
Yoga -> Divorce spirit from body
Yoga is an adaptation of the Hindu school Samkhya.
Samkhya is:
1) atheistic
2) Dualistic
- Purusha: Soul
- Prkriti: Matter
3) Pluralistic
The point of Samkhya is to remove your Purusha from the constraints of Prkriti.
Yoga took this general idea and added the god Ishvara.
Ishvara is immovable.
The breathing and postures of Yoga are attempting to imitate Ishvara's immovability.
To practice Yoga for the physical benefits is the same as taking communion for the nutritional value of the bread and wine.
Different religions have different ends and different means to attaining those ends.
Pluralism
Radical Pluralism: J.A. DiNoia & Stephen Heim
-Each religion has its own understanding of salvation and is self-contained without overlap
Heim: "Nirvana - communion with God are contradictory only if we assume that one or the other must be the sole fate for all human beings"
Problem: Heim is not true to the religions here
Problems with radical pluralism:
1) Exclusivity
2) There cannot be mutually exclusive true practices
3) We would have to make up concepts for this methodology because it is self-setting
John Hick's Forced Pluralism
1) All religions serve to bring people into contact with "The Real"
2) No religion has an edge on any others
3) All religions do an equal job of bringing their followers into relationship with the Real
4) The actual beliefs of religions differ from each other.
5) The Real is beyond all human words and concepts
6) All religions are legitimate ways to the Real
Hick on exclusive religions: Since salvation is not confined to Christianity we must reject all the old exclusivist dogma. This has in fact been done by most thinking Christians, though exceptions remain, mostly within the extreme Protestant fundamentalist constituencies.
Hick's Model
Buddhism: stripped of its Buddhist concepts
Hinduism: stripped of its Hindu concepts
Islam: stripped of its Islamic concepts
Christianity: stripped of its Christian concepts
All of these point man towards the real
Hick limits his model to Axial Age and Post-Axial Age religions (6th century B.C. on)
Heim's critique of Hick: The Real is like a cardboard cutout on the boardwalk. Put your head in the hole and you are in contact with the real.
Sumner Twiss' defense of Hick
Higher order theory with a Lower order description
Lower order descriptions that are in each religion may not fit the higher order theory. But that just means that lower order descriptions need to be changed to fit the scheme.
Iranaeus (2nd Century Apologist) vs. Gnostics
Gnosticism:
Monotes (awareness) -> Denotes (otherness) -> Monas (one-ness)-> Hen (other)
Iraneaus' satire of gnosticism
Gourd -> Utter-Emptiness -> Cucumber -> Melon -> The writings of Valentinus
Hick, like Valentinus is completely contrived. The description is totally arbitrary.
Class Notes
The Grace & Redemption Debate
Is Christianity the only way?
Response - the only way to what?
Salvation means different things in different religions.
Salvation meaning:
Christianity -> Atonement
Islam -> Test of Obedience
Zoroastrianism -> Dualism
Hindu Vedanta -> Atman = Brahman
Hindu Bhakti -> Reliance on deity
Buddhism -> Nirvana
Jainism -> Floating to the top
Jodo Shin-Shu -> Escape to Pure Land
Yoga -> Divorce spirit from body
Yoga is an adaptation of the Hindu school Samkhya.
Samkhya is:
1) atheistic
2) Dualistic
- Purusha: Soul
- Prkriti: Matter
3) Pluralistic
The point of Samkhya is to remove your Purusha from the constraints of Prkriti.
Yoga took this general idea and added the god Ishvara.
Ishvara is immovable.
The breathing and postures of Yoga are attempting to imitate Ishvara's immovability.
To practice Yoga for the physical benefits is the same as taking communion for the nutritional value of the bread and wine.
Different religions have different ends and different means to attaining those ends.
Pluralism
Radical Pluralism: J.A. DiNoia & Stephen Heim
-Each religion has its own understanding of salvation and is self-contained without overlap
Heim: "Nirvana - communion with God are contradictory only if we assume that one or the other must be the sole fate for all human beings"
Problem: Heim is not true to the religions here
Problems with radical pluralism:
1) Exclusivity
2) There cannot be mutually exclusive true practices
3) We would have to make up concepts for this methodology because it is self-setting
John Hick's Forced Pluralism
1) All religions serve to bring people into contact with "The Real"
2) No religion has an edge on any others
3) All religions do an equal job of bringing their followers into relationship with the Real
4) The actual beliefs of religions differ from each other.
5) The Real is beyond all human words and concepts
6) All religions are legitimate ways to the Real
Hick on exclusive religions: Since salvation is not confined to Christianity we must reject all the old exclusivist dogma. This has in fact been done by most thinking Christians, though exceptions remain, mostly within the extreme Protestant fundamentalist constituencies.
Hick's Model
Buddhism: stripped of its Buddhist concepts
Hinduism: stripped of its Hindu concepts
Islam: stripped of its Islamic concepts
Christianity: stripped of its Christian concepts
All of these point man towards the real
Hick limits his model to Axial Age and Post-Axial Age religions (6th century B.C. on)
Heim's critique of Hick: The Real is like a cardboard cutout on the boardwalk. Put your head in the hole and you are in contact with the real.
Sumner Twiss' defense of Hick
Higher order theory with a Lower order description
Lower order descriptions that are in each religion may not fit the higher order theory. But that just means that lower order descriptions need to be changed to fit the scheme.
Iranaeus (2nd Century Apologist) vs. Gnostics
Gnosticism:
Monotes (awareness) -> Denotes (otherness) -> Monas (one-ness)-> Hen (other)
Iraneaus' satire of gnosticism
Gourd -> Utter-Emptiness -> Cucumber -> Melon -> The writings of Valentinus
Hick, like Valentinus is completely contrived. The description is totally arbitrary.
Monday, April 16, 2007
Creation & Redemption in Eastern Traditions, Mysticism
(Originally written April 16, 2007 in Book 15)
In Eastern Religions one needs to be redeemed from phenomenal existence.
In Vedantic monistic Hinduism the philosophy begins with the continual existence of a soul (jiva) in this present world. Maya (this world) is full of suffering. So as long as jiva exists in the Maya the jiva will suffer. As the jiva exists in the Maya it is operated from its true state of existence as oneness with the Bhraman.
Samsara, the cycle of reincarnation that keeps the soul anchored in Maya, keeping people trapped in a life of suffering.
Whether one comes back as an animal, human, demon or whatever depends on the amount of Karma one accumulates by committing disruptive actions (Klesha).
The view of Samsara is a hopeless one because they do not see it as very easy to get out of the cycle.
Another major problem in this view is that of ignorance. One may not know his true identity of atman-Brahma. Salvation must come through knowledge (advaita).
Salvation is achieved through knowledge in Vedantic Hinduism.
Moksha is the "release" from Samsara.
Moksha is salvation in the sense that it saves one from phenomenal existence.
Buddhism, Jainism and other forms of Hinduism follow similar lines of salvation, but in there own way.
In Buddhism, it is not the identity of atman (the true self) one hopes to achieve, but anatman (non-self) [This is Theravada Buddhism].
In Theravada Buddhism salvation occurs when one recognizes that one does not exist and stop clinging to this realm of existence.
In Jainism we exist in the realm because of the accumulated karma (which in Jainism is actually physical matter clinging to our souls).
Karma is accumulated by our actions that harm other creatures.
To achieve salvation in Jainism one must cease doing things that accumulates dust on one's soul.
Jainism salvation also starts with knowledge. The soul that knows the truth and then acts on it is the soul that gains release from the cycle of reincarnation.
Chinese and Japanese traditions have no notion of salvation within themselves. Buddhism in these cultures has grafted the notion of salvation into them.
Christianity
Christianity is differentiated from all other religions by its notion of original sin.
Original sin rules out any neutral status of humanity. But, it is not Eastern in that original sin results from phenomenal existence, but fallen phenomenal existence.
The Fall of man resulted in a disruption of the God-man relationship. Salvation in Christianity is the restoration of this all important relationship.
Man is helpless and unable to restore this relationship through his own power.
Christianity holds that all human beings are fallen as a result of Adam's original sin.
Christianity emphasizes the fallenness of all human beings.
In Indic religions the cosmos and physical existence is corrupt; in Christianity the human soul is what is corrupt and if the cosmos and physical existence is corrupt it is because of the result of human fallenness.
The way to salvation in Christianity is through mediation via the atoning death of Christ.
Salvation entails a number of facets:
1) Justification - declaration of the sinner as righteous by God on the basis of Christ's work.
2) Regeneration - God implants a new nature in the person enabling him to live a righteous life.
3) Conversion - sinner turns from sin and trusts in God
4) Adoption - new believer is made a member of God's family
5) Indwelling - The Holy Spirit dwells within the believer
6) Glorification - Elevating the relationship between God and man to a higher status then Adam and God initially enjoyed.
In Christianity faith cannot be supplemented by works, but faith results in good works.
Grace in other religions
Christianity is not the only religion in where one is saved by faith alone.
There is a difference between grace and mercy.
Most religions have a concept of mercy which is usually a central concept.
Grace is entirely the result of the divine person's actions and is unaided by human efforts whatsoever.
Along with Christianity there are two classic examples of grace in world religions:
1) The cat school of Bhakti Hinduism
- Southern school of devotion to Rama
- Rama saves us the way a cat carries her young (in her mouth)
2) The Jodo-Shin-Shu school of Buddhism
- most popular school in Japan
- salvation comes from the buddha Amida
- The legend goes that Amido was a ruler under the influence of the Buddha Lokesvararaja and took up a monkshood. As a monk he went by the name Dharmakara and vowed not to achieve enlightenment until he made it possible for all creatures to achieve it. Thus, he created the pure land in which all would be reborn into and achieve nirvana in the next life.
- The monk Honen in the 12th century A.D. made this legend the core of his buddhism.
- One can enter the pure land in one's next life by stating "Namu Amida Butsu" (I worship the Buddha Amida (or "nembutsu" for short).
- Honen taught to recite nembutsu frequently to achieve rebirth as a male in the pure land.
- The Buddhist monk Shinran actually built on Honen's ideas and formed the Jodo-Shin-Shu school.
- Shinran taught that there is nothing a person can do to enter the Pure Land other than completely trusting in Amida.
Christian Response
In Christianity salvation comes via faith in Jesus Christ. In the cat school of Bhakti Hinduism comes through faith in Rama/Ishvana and in Jodo-Shin-Shu Buddhism grace comes through faith in Amida Butsu.
Christianity's concept of grace is tied to its concept of redemptive salvation which makes it drastically different than Eastern concepts of grace.
Christianity differentiates itself from all other religions in the role that its founder plays as a historical figure.
Islam could exist without Muhammad. Muhammad taught that Islam was practiced long before him, but it had been corrupted.
Muhammad plays an important role in Islam, but not an essential one.
The Buddha is neither unique nor essential to Buddhism. There were many Buddhas.
Jainism can exist without its founder Mahavira because he is non-essential.
Without the historicity of Christianity is a religion of impossible moral exhortations.
Without Jesus and his death on the cross and his resurrection there can be no Christian atonement.
Christianity is a wholly unique religion because it is falsifiable (Jesus' body could be found and falsify the resurrection) and because it can be shown as plausible because of historical evidence.
Cosmos & Mysticism
Mysticism exists in Eastern & Western Religions.
The essence of a mystical experience is that one participates in an unmediated link with something absolute.
Examples of Mysticism
1) A Sufi (Islam) experiences the closeness of Allah
2) A Kabbalist (Judaism) sees God on his throne (the devekuth)
3) The Vedantic Hindu who realizes the absorption of his atman in Brahman
4) The Bhakti Hindu who has a direct vision (darshan) of his deity
5) The Buddhist who comes to awareness in nirvana
6) The Daoist who yields all to the Dao
Eastern mystical experiences deal with paths of redemption whereas Western mystical experiences merely enhance the total spiritual picture.
There is no good reason to infer that Christian mystics encounter the same reality as non-Christian ones (contra the "Perennial Philosophy")
Mystics do not encounter "Reality" they encounter a deity.
There should not be too much significance placed on mystical experiences within Christianity.
Mystical experiences are not a part of Christianity's theological concept of redemption.
Cosmic Redemption
While there is no notion of Original Sin in Judaism, it stresses the fallen nature of the present world order.
In addition to human beings each needing individual redemption, the cosmos as a whole needs redemption.
In Western Traditions the cosmos will eventually be redeemed: Islam- Heaven & Hell; Judaism - kingdom of God; Christianity - New Heaven & Earth; Zoroastrianism - reclaiming of the universe. But, in Eastern traditions the cosmos are continually renewed, but never redeemed.
In Eastern Religions one needs to be redeemed from phenomenal existence.
In Vedantic monistic Hinduism the philosophy begins with the continual existence of a soul (jiva) in this present world. Maya (this world) is full of suffering. So as long as jiva exists in the Maya the jiva will suffer. As the jiva exists in the Maya it is operated from its true state of existence as oneness with the Bhraman.
Samsara, the cycle of reincarnation that keeps the soul anchored in Maya, keeping people trapped in a life of suffering.
Whether one comes back as an animal, human, demon or whatever depends on the amount of Karma one accumulates by committing disruptive actions (Klesha).
The view of Samsara is a hopeless one because they do not see it as very easy to get out of the cycle.
Another major problem in this view is that of ignorance. One may not know his true identity of atman-Brahma. Salvation must come through knowledge (advaita).
Salvation is achieved through knowledge in Vedantic Hinduism.
Moksha is the "release" from Samsara.
Moksha is salvation in the sense that it saves one from phenomenal existence.
Buddhism, Jainism and other forms of Hinduism follow similar lines of salvation, but in there own way.
In Buddhism, it is not the identity of atman (the true self) one hopes to achieve, but anatman (non-self) [This is Theravada Buddhism].
In Theravada Buddhism salvation occurs when one recognizes that one does not exist and stop clinging to this realm of existence.
In Jainism we exist in the realm because of the accumulated karma (which in Jainism is actually physical matter clinging to our souls).
Karma is accumulated by our actions that harm other creatures.
To achieve salvation in Jainism one must cease doing things that accumulates dust on one's soul.
Jainism salvation also starts with knowledge. The soul that knows the truth and then acts on it is the soul that gains release from the cycle of reincarnation.
Chinese and Japanese traditions have no notion of salvation within themselves. Buddhism in these cultures has grafted the notion of salvation into them.
Christianity
Christianity is differentiated from all other religions by its notion of original sin.
Original sin rules out any neutral status of humanity. But, it is not Eastern in that original sin results from phenomenal existence, but fallen phenomenal existence.
The Fall of man resulted in a disruption of the God-man relationship. Salvation in Christianity is the restoration of this all important relationship.
Man is helpless and unable to restore this relationship through his own power.
Christianity holds that all human beings are fallen as a result of Adam's original sin.
Christianity emphasizes the fallenness of all human beings.
In Indic religions the cosmos and physical existence is corrupt; in Christianity the human soul is what is corrupt and if the cosmos and physical existence is corrupt it is because of the result of human fallenness.
The way to salvation in Christianity is through mediation via the atoning death of Christ.
Salvation entails a number of facets:
1) Justification - declaration of the sinner as righteous by God on the basis of Christ's work.
2) Regeneration - God implants a new nature in the person enabling him to live a righteous life.
3) Conversion - sinner turns from sin and trusts in God
4) Adoption - new believer is made a member of God's family
5) Indwelling - The Holy Spirit dwells within the believer
6) Glorification - Elevating the relationship between God and man to a higher status then Adam and God initially enjoyed.
In Christianity faith cannot be supplemented by works, but faith results in good works.
Grace in other religions
Christianity is not the only religion in where one is saved by faith alone.
There is a difference between grace and mercy.
Most religions have a concept of mercy which is usually a central concept.
Grace is entirely the result of the divine person's actions and is unaided by human efforts whatsoever.
Along with Christianity there are two classic examples of grace in world religions:
1) The cat school of Bhakti Hinduism
- Southern school of devotion to Rama
- Rama saves us the way a cat carries her young (in her mouth)
2) The Jodo-Shin-Shu school of Buddhism
- most popular school in Japan
- salvation comes from the buddha Amida
- The legend goes that Amido was a ruler under the influence of the Buddha Lokesvararaja and took up a monkshood. As a monk he went by the name Dharmakara and vowed not to achieve enlightenment until he made it possible for all creatures to achieve it. Thus, he created the pure land in which all would be reborn into and achieve nirvana in the next life.
- The monk Honen in the 12th century A.D. made this legend the core of his buddhism.
- One can enter the pure land in one's next life by stating "Namu Amida Butsu" (I worship the Buddha Amida (or "nembutsu" for short).
- Honen taught to recite nembutsu frequently to achieve rebirth as a male in the pure land.
- The Buddhist monk Shinran actually built on Honen's ideas and formed the Jodo-Shin-Shu school.
- Shinran taught that there is nothing a person can do to enter the Pure Land other than completely trusting in Amida.
Christian Response
In Christianity salvation comes via faith in Jesus Christ. In the cat school of Bhakti Hinduism comes through faith in Rama/Ishvana and in Jodo-Shin-Shu Buddhism grace comes through faith in Amida Butsu.
Christianity's concept of grace is tied to its concept of redemptive salvation which makes it drastically different than Eastern concepts of grace.
Christianity differentiates itself from all other religions in the role that its founder plays as a historical figure.
Islam could exist without Muhammad. Muhammad taught that Islam was practiced long before him, but it had been corrupted.
Muhammad plays an important role in Islam, but not an essential one.
The Buddha is neither unique nor essential to Buddhism. There were many Buddhas.
Jainism can exist without its founder Mahavira because he is non-essential.
Without the historicity of Christianity is a religion of impossible moral exhortations.
Without Jesus and his death on the cross and his resurrection there can be no Christian atonement.
Christianity is a wholly unique religion because it is falsifiable (Jesus' body could be found and falsify the resurrection) and because it can be shown as plausible because of historical evidence.
Cosmos & Mysticism
Mysticism exists in Eastern & Western Religions.
The essence of a mystical experience is that one participates in an unmediated link with something absolute.
Examples of Mysticism
1) A Sufi (Islam) experiences the closeness of Allah
2) A Kabbalist (Judaism) sees God on his throne (the devekuth)
3) The Vedantic Hindu who realizes the absorption of his atman in Brahman
4) The Bhakti Hindu who has a direct vision (darshan) of his deity
5) The Buddhist who comes to awareness in nirvana
6) The Daoist who yields all to the Dao
Eastern mystical experiences deal with paths of redemption whereas Western mystical experiences merely enhance the total spiritual picture.
There is no good reason to infer that Christian mystics encounter the same reality as non-Christian ones (contra the "Perennial Philosophy")
Mystics do not encounter "Reality" they encounter a deity.
There should not be too much significance placed on mystical experiences within Christianity.
Mystical experiences are not a part of Christianity's theological concept of redemption.
Cosmic Redemption
While there is no notion of Original Sin in Judaism, it stresses the fallen nature of the present world order.
In addition to human beings each needing individual redemption, the cosmos as a whole needs redemption.
In Western Traditions the cosmos will eventually be redeemed: Islam- Heaven & Hell; Judaism - kingdom of God; Christianity - New Heaven & Earth; Zoroastrianism - reclaiming of the universe. But, in Eastern traditions the cosmos are continually renewed, but never redeemed.
Wednesday, April 11, 2007
Morality & Guilt in various religions
(Originally written April 11, 2007 in book 15)
Chapter 4 - Morality & Guilt
Some fundamental distinctions
There are many moral concepts that are universal to all religions.
Duties in Religion
1. Moral Norms
2. Religious Norms
A. Obligatory Actions
B. Ritual avoidances
i. Defilement of self
ii. Defilement of the Holy
The Common Core
There are similarities in moral codes from religion to religion, but upon closer examination they can be seriously different.
Some principles may seem similar like Thou Shall Not Kill of Judaism & Christianity and the principle of ahimsa - the 10 precepts of Buddhism. But, "Thou shall not kill" means do not murder, while ahimsa is no harming of life whatsoever.
Other principles are completely contrary from religion to religion. The second commandment, "Thou shall not bow down before any graven images" is contrary to the statues of Buddhas, an integral part of Buddhism. Ahimsa is contrary to the animal sacrifice of the Old Testament.
Religious and ethical considerations go hand in hand. An ethical concept of a religion cannot be isolated from the overall context of that religion.
The Ceremonial Dimension
Sin and defilement are very different. Sin (a breaking of a moral rule) involves intent, whereas defilement (a breaking of a ceremonial rule) completely disregards intent.
Moral, religious, and ceremonial concepts can be isolated only in theory. In practice they work hand in hand and no such distinction is found among practitioners.
Case in point: Christianity
Christianity is not an ethical religion like Judaism or Islam. It is a redemptive religion The heart of Christianity is not its moral code (it does have one) but a historical event leading to the salvation of men.
The Law within Christianity operates in a few ways:
1) It governs life so that life is actually livable.
2) It functions as a "schoolmaster" (Galatians 3:24). It prepares us for adoption into God's family. It shows us that we are incapable of earning admittance into God's family and that we can enter only by Grace.
3) The keeping of the law is only possible via the regenerative work of the Holy Spirit.
"Christian ethics apart from a Christian supernatural setting is pointless" (Corduan, 88).
Christian religion and Christian ethics are utterly and wholly intertwined. Without the theological underpinnings of Christianity all that is left is an impossible moral code.
From its inception Christianity ahas been against many of the ritual prohibitions that were integral parts of Jewish and Gentile societies.
The only occurrence of ceremonial purity in the New Testament is Paul's admonishment of the Corinthians' treatment of the Lord's supper (1 Corinthians 11:17-34).
Corduan believes that this admonition is not so much a command for personal holiness prior to partaking of Communion, but a mandate to understand communion correctly and to treat it with proper respect. Linehan feels that this is a ceremonial purity issue right now (subject to change of course).
Side not: It may not be a call to become personally holy before partaking communion because that would in fact deny the nature of communion, but a more inner ceremonial purity in being ready to partake of communion. As for what communion is I am not ready to give it the Catholic transubstantiation status, but neither do I want to reduce it to a mere remembrance of the event. I think it is a true partaking of something holy and not merely a remembrance of something holy.
In various aspects of Christendom throughout history some ceremonial purity has emerged, but is not a part of the New Testament.
Ethics in the religious universe
Judaism & Islam have similar ethical codes.
Judaism has a longer history and a much more detailed set of codes.
The moral codes function differently in Islam and Judaism. Adherence to the moral code in Judaism is an expression of the relationship between the Jew and YHWH whereas adherence to the moral code in Islam is the way to enter Heaven for the Muslim.
The standards of Judaism also apply solely to the Jews whereas the moral codes of Islam we taken as universally binding.
Zoroastrianism's moral code is similar to Islamic & Jewish codes. All three were revealed by God to a prophet (Zoroastrianism - Zoroaster, Islam - Muhammad, Judaism - Moses).
Zoroastrianism however is preoccupied with ceremonial purity more than ethical obligations.
In Indic religions (Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism) there is a two-tiered arrangement. Monks have stricter codes than the laity.
The Hindu code is hinged on the caste system. All ethical and moral obligations are tied to one's caste.
Hinduism also has duties associated with stages of life.
A man must become a sannyasin and renounce everything, his name, his family, his caste, etc. in order to achieve moksha (release, liberation).
The monks in Buddhism and Jainism are the only ones capable of release from the cycle of reincarnation. The laity can work to have a better rebirth, but cannot achieve nirvana.
Jainism is harshly ascetic. Eventually a monk will starve himself to achieve his goal.
Buddhism considers itself the "middle way" and is not as ascetic as Jainism.
Buddhism teaches that harsh asceticism can be a hinderance to spiritual enlightenment.
Confucianism is above all else a code of behavior.
Confucianism came to exist within other religions (Daoism/Buddhism in China, Shinto in Japan), not along side it.
Confucianism focuses on human behavior and teaches that proper individual behavior will alleviate societal problems.
Confucianism does not possess within itself any religious doctrine.
Violations and their Consequences
There are two major trajectories in the world's religions:
1) Western/Abrahamic Traditions
- Judaism
- Zoroastrianism
- Islam
- Baha'i
- Christianity
2) Eastern/Indic Traditions
- Hinduism
- Buddhism
- Jainism
- Sikhism
- Daoism
These two groups differ radically on the conception of sin.
In Abrahamic religions sin is an offending of God and breaking the human-God relationship.
In Indic religion sin is a negative Karmic effect.
God is the source of moral rules in monotheistic traditions.
The character of moral law is prescriptive and proscriptive, not descriptive in Abrahamic traditions.
Punishment occurs after sin in the West. It could be a warning, salutary, or be a making of an example out of the person.
Punitive action results out of a decree of a personal God. A personal God can also provide mercy or grace to the sinner.
Sin in the Indic traditions is similar to breaking a natural law.
Indic religions have the concept of Karma, which is not tied to a personal God.
In Hinduism, Karma is tied to Samsara, the cycle of rebirths. One's present life is the result of one's previous life.
Karma is not deterministic or fatalistic in Hinduism. One controls one's karma.
Karma is automated in Hinduism. It is not (usually) a judgment passed by a deity.
Karma is negative and pessimistic. It is viewed as perpetual suffering.
The goal of Hinduism is not to accumulate good karma, but to escape the samsara cycle.
There can be a divine intervention in samsara and karma. This is what the Bhagavad Gita tells Hindus.
The negative aspect of karma is even more noticeable in Buddhism and Jainism.
Buddha taught that there is no individual soul and that each person's an aggregate of effects.
Good karma in Buddhism is karma nonetheless and must be balanced out in another life. The goal is to have no karma at all.
In Jainism, Karma is a dust that accumulates on one's soul.
Only a complet abnégation of life leads to release from samsara.
The goal of a Jain monk is to do nothing and to starve himself to death.
Sin belongs within the framework of a system with a personal God. Karma fits into a framework without a personal deity much better.
Christianity alone possesses the notion of "original sin". At first blush this can appear similar to karma in that everyone is born into a state of condemnation through no fault of our own.
The major misunderstanding with original sin is to tie it to finitude. Our finitude makes it impossible not to sin is a common erroneous belief.
Christ proved that human being can live a sinless life.
Original Sin describes the broken relationship between man and God, not the introduction of finitude.
Healing the Breach
Ronal M. Green distinguishes between four senses of reason
1) Theoretical reason - our conceptualization of the world around us
2) Prudential reason - our capacity for living successfully in the world as we understand it
3) Moral reason - places our priorities in order
4) Religious reason - attempts to reconcile the conflict between prudential and moral reason
Response to the World Parliament Statement
Only the most minimal code seems to be fairly universal (truth-property-life-sex) and even these must not be abstracted from their religious context lest they become equivocations and meaningless.
The statement, originally by Hans Küng calls for an end to prejudice and hate. This is all well and good unless it denies objective truth on matters like abortion and homosexuality. Many Christians are labeled as bigots for their stances on these issues.
Likewise, Küng demands that religions denounce their fundamentalists because they deny peace among religions and without religious peace there can be no world peace. But this world be a denouncement of objective truth on many vital issues.
The 1997 Declaration of a Global Ethic affirms an universal moral code and locates it where it ought to be, within a religious context. But, it does not give any implementation strategy and leave evangelical Christians in a place where they cannot agree with it without giving away too much.
Chapter 4 - Morality & Guilt
Some fundamental distinctions
There are many moral concepts that are universal to all religions.
Duties in Religion
1. Moral Norms
2. Religious Norms
A. Obligatory Actions
B. Ritual avoidances
i. Defilement of self
ii. Defilement of the Holy
The Common Core
There are similarities in moral codes from religion to religion, but upon closer examination they can be seriously different.
Some principles may seem similar like Thou Shall Not Kill of Judaism & Christianity and the principle of ahimsa - the 10 precepts of Buddhism. But, "Thou shall not kill" means do not murder, while ahimsa is no harming of life whatsoever.
Other principles are completely contrary from religion to religion. The second commandment, "Thou shall not bow down before any graven images" is contrary to the statues of Buddhas, an integral part of Buddhism. Ahimsa is contrary to the animal sacrifice of the Old Testament.
Religious and ethical considerations go hand in hand. An ethical concept of a religion cannot be isolated from the overall context of that religion.
The Ceremonial Dimension
Sin and defilement are very different. Sin (a breaking of a moral rule) involves intent, whereas defilement (a breaking of a ceremonial rule) completely disregards intent.
Moral, religious, and ceremonial concepts can be isolated only in theory. In practice they work hand in hand and no such distinction is found among practitioners.
Case in point: Christianity
Christianity is not an ethical religion like Judaism or Islam. It is a redemptive religion The heart of Christianity is not its moral code (it does have one) but a historical event leading to the salvation of men.
The Law within Christianity operates in a few ways:
1) It governs life so that life is actually livable.
2) It functions as a "schoolmaster" (Galatians 3:24). It prepares us for adoption into God's family. It shows us that we are incapable of earning admittance into God's family and that we can enter only by Grace.
3) The keeping of the law is only possible via the regenerative work of the Holy Spirit.
"Christian ethics apart from a Christian supernatural setting is pointless" (Corduan, 88).
Christian religion and Christian ethics are utterly and wholly intertwined. Without the theological underpinnings of Christianity all that is left is an impossible moral code.
From its inception Christianity ahas been against many of the ritual prohibitions that were integral parts of Jewish and Gentile societies.
The only occurrence of ceremonial purity in the New Testament is Paul's admonishment of the Corinthians' treatment of the Lord's supper (1 Corinthians 11:17-34).
Corduan believes that this admonition is not so much a command for personal holiness prior to partaking of Communion, but a mandate to understand communion correctly and to treat it with proper respect. Linehan feels that this is a ceremonial purity issue right now (subject to change of course).
Side not: It may not be a call to become personally holy before partaking communion because that would in fact deny the nature of communion, but a more inner ceremonial purity in being ready to partake of communion. As for what communion is I am not ready to give it the Catholic transubstantiation status, but neither do I want to reduce it to a mere remembrance of the event. I think it is a true partaking of something holy and not merely a remembrance of something holy.
In various aspects of Christendom throughout history some ceremonial purity has emerged, but is not a part of the New Testament.
Ethics in the religious universe
Judaism & Islam have similar ethical codes.
Judaism has a longer history and a much more detailed set of codes.
The moral codes function differently in Islam and Judaism. Adherence to the moral code in Judaism is an expression of the relationship between the Jew and YHWH whereas adherence to the moral code in Islam is the way to enter Heaven for the Muslim.
The standards of Judaism also apply solely to the Jews whereas the moral codes of Islam we taken as universally binding.
Zoroastrianism's moral code is similar to Islamic & Jewish codes. All three were revealed by God to a prophet (Zoroastrianism - Zoroaster, Islam - Muhammad, Judaism - Moses).
Zoroastrianism however is preoccupied with ceremonial purity more than ethical obligations.
In Indic religions (Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism) there is a two-tiered arrangement. Monks have stricter codes than the laity.
The Hindu code is hinged on the caste system. All ethical and moral obligations are tied to one's caste.
Hinduism also has duties associated with stages of life.
A man must become a sannyasin and renounce everything, his name, his family, his caste, etc. in order to achieve moksha (release, liberation).
The monks in Buddhism and Jainism are the only ones capable of release from the cycle of reincarnation. The laity can work to have a better rebirth, but cannot achieve nirvana.
Jainism is harshly ascetic. Eventually a monk will starve himself to achieve his goal.
Buddhism considers itself the "middle way" and is not as ascetic as Jainism.
Buddhism teaches that harsh asceticism can be a hinderance to spiritual enlightenment.
Confucianism is above all else a code of behavior.
Confucianism came to exist within other religions (Daoism/Buddhism in China, Shinto in Japan), not along side it.
Confucianism focuses on human behavior and teaches that proper individual behavior will alleviate societal problems.
Confucianism does not possess within itself any religious doctrine.
Violations and their Consequences
There are two major trajectories in the world's religions:
1) Western/Abrahamic Traditions
- Judaism
- Zoroastrianism
- Islam
- Baha'i
- Christianity
2) Eastern/Indic Traditions
- Hinduism
- Buddhism
- Jainism
- Sikhism
- Daoism
These two groups differ radically on the conception of sin.
In Abrahamic religions sin is an offending of God and breaking the human-God relationship.
In Indic religion sin is a negative Karmic effect.
God is the source of moral rules in monotheistic traditions.
The character of moral law is prescriptive and proscriptive, not descriptive in Abrahamic traditions.
Punishment occurs after sin in the West. It could be a warning, salutary, or be a making of an example out of the person.
Punitive action results out of a decree of a personal God. A personal God can also provide mercy or grace to the sinner.
Sin in the Indic traditions is similar to breaking a natural law.
Indic religions have the concept of Karma, which is not tied to a personal God.
In Hinduism, Karma is tied to Samsara, the cycle of rebirths. One's present life is the result of one's previous life.
Karma is not deterministic or fatalistic in Hinduism. One controls one's karma.
Karma is automated in Hinduism. It is not (usually) a judgment passed by a deity.
Karma is negative and pessimistic. It is viewed as perpetual suffering.
The goal of Hinduism is not to accumulate good karma, but to escape the samsara cycle.
There can be a divine intervention in samsara and karma. This is what the Bhagavad Gita tells Hindus.
The negative aspect of karma is even more noticeable in Buddhism and Jainism.
Buddha taught that there is no individual soul and that each person's an aggregate of effects.
Good karma in Buddhism is karma nonetheless and must be balanced out in another life. The goal is to have no karma at all.
In Jainism, Karma is a dust that accumulates on one's soul.
Only a complet abnégation of life leads to release from samsara.
The goal of a Jain monk is to do nothing and to starve himself to death.
Sin belongs within the framework of a system with a personal God. Karma fits into a framework without a personal deity much better.
Christianity alone possesses the notion of "original sin". At first blush this can appear similar to karma in that everyone is born into a state of condemnation through no fault of our own.
The major misunderstanding with original sin is to tie it to finitude. Our finitude makes it impossible not to sin is a common erroneous belief.
Christ proved that human being can live a sinless life.
Original Sin describes the broken relationship between man and God, not the introduction of finitude.
Healing the Breach
Ronal M. Green distinguishes between four senses of reason
1) Theoretical reason - our conceptualization of the world around us
2) Prudential reason - our capacity for living successfully in the world as we understand it
3) Moral reason - places our priorities in order
4) Religious reason - attempts to reconcile the conflict between prudential and moral reason
Response to the World Parliament Statement
Only the most minimal code seems to be fairly universal (truth-property-life-sex) and even these must not be abstracted from their religious context lest they become equivocations and meaningless.
The statement, originally by Hans Küng calls for an end to prejudice and hate. This is all well and good unless it denies objective truth on matters like abortion and homosexuality. Many Christians are labeled as bigots for their stances on these issues.
Likewise, Küng demands that religions denounce their fundamentalists because they deny peace among religions and without religious peace there can be no world peace. But this world be a denouncement of objective truth on many vital issues.
The 1997 Declaration of a Global Ethic affirms an universal moral code and locates it where it ought to be, within a religious context. But, it does not give any implementation strategy and leave evangelical Christians in a place where they cannot agree with it without giving away too much.
Tuesday, April 10, 2007
Class notes on Salvation
(Originally written April 10, 2007 in Book 15)
(Test Thursday: 4/12/07)
Salvation: Different Concepts
Gandhi - "Religions are different roads converging to the same point".
Two main traditions:
1) Western
- Middle East Originated/Abrahamic
- Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Islam
- Problem: Our spiritual condition
2) Eastern
- Indic
- Subcontinent originated
- Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism,
- Problem: Our very existence (karma)
Christianity problem of salvation:
-Utter inability to restore a relationship with God (total depravity)
Islam: Test of Submission
-Life is a test to see how obedient we can be to Allah
The Hindu Dilemma
-Salvation is the escape from the never ending cycle of reincarnation (moksha)
How do you escape?
Vedantic Monism: Atman = Brahman
- Find how to become identical with God
Principles of Bhakti (Way of Devotion)
- Cling to one particular god to escape from the cycle of samsara
- This is not parallel to a holy God or a parallel to sin offending the god
3 Main Bhakti Sects
Vaishnavites - Worship of Vishnu or his avatars (incarnations) i.e. Krishna/Rama
Shaivites - Worship of Shiva
Shakti - Worship goddesses like Kali
Salvation from Rama, "Grace" in Hinduism
Monkey School: We must cling to Rama to achieve salvation
Cat School - Rama saves us apart from our works
Often when people refer to the "grace" of other religions they are using it to mean "mercy", not a synonymous term with the Christian concept of Grace.
Major Splits in Hinduism
Way of Works:
- Karma marga
- Brahminical Ritual
Way of Knowledge:
- Jñana Marga
- Vedanta
- Atman-Brahman
Way of Devotion:
- Bhakti Marga
Buddhist conception of salvation:
4 Noble Truths:
1) To live is to suffer
2) Suffering is caused by desire
3) To eliminate suffering one must eliminate desire
4) To eliminate desire one must follow the 8-fold path
- Right concentration
- Right View
- Right intention
- Right speech
- Right action (10 Precepts)
- Right livelihood
- Right effort
- Right meditation
Salvation is ultimately elimination of one's self
Pure Land Buddhism- conception of "grace"
"Jodo-Shin-Shu" aka Pure Land
- Worships the Buddha Amida
- Amdia became a buddha in Heaven (Dhyani Buddha)
- Buddha of the West
- Amida created a "pure land" for people who chant to him. Anyone who chants to him will be reborn in this pure land as a male so as to be closer to achieving nirvana.
Obviously, the Pure Land Buddhism's conception of grace is drastically different from Christianity's conception of Grace.
Jainism
Goal: to escape from the cycle of reincarnation and the elimination of karma.
Mahavira (6th Century B.C.) founded Jainism. His story is similar to the Buddha. Mahavira received enlightenment, but unlike the Buddha, retained his ascetic lifestyle.
Tirthankaras - teachers of Jainism
Mahavira was the last of the 24 Tirthankaras.
Two Main Divisions:
1) Shvetambara - "Clad in White"
2) Disambara - "Clad in atmosphere"
In the Shvetambara women are are eligible for salvation, but in the Disambara women are ineligible for salvation.
Karma: Jainism believes in individual souls (as opposed to Buddhism and Hinduism). This is the Jiva.
Jiva, left to itself would rise to the top of the universe. But, Karma adds physical Ajiva to the soul, weighing it down. Ajiva causes the soul to sink.
Salvation is the removing of Ajiva (dead matter) from one's soul.
The most important principle of Jainism is ahimsa.
Conclusion
Religions do not just have different ways of salvation, but their conceptions of salvation are very different.
(Test Thursday: 4/12/07)
Salvation: Different Concepts
Gandhi - "Religions are different roads converging to the same point".
Two main traditions:
1) Western
- Middle East Originated/Abrahamic
- Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Islam
- Problem: Our spiritual condition
2) Eastern
- Indic
- Subcontinent originated
- Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism,
- Problem: Our very existence (karma)
Christianity problem of salvation:
-Utter inability to restore a relationship with God (total depravity)
Islam: Test of Submission
-Life is a test to see how obedient we can be to Allah
The Hindu Dilemma
-Salvation is the escape from the never ending cycle of reincarnation (moksha)
How do you escape?
Vedantic Monism: Atman = Brahman
- Find how to become identical with God
Principles of Bhakti (Way of Devotion)
- Cling to one particular god to escape from the cycle of samsara
- This is not parallel to a holy God or a parallel to sin offending the god
3 Main Bhakti Sects
Vaishnavites - Worship of Vishnu or his avatars (incarnations) i.e. Krishna/Rama
Shaivites - Worship of Shiva
Shakti - Worship goddesses like Kali
Salvation from Rama, "Grace" in Hinduism
Monkey School: We must cling to Rama to achieve salvation
Cat School - Rama saves us apart from our works
Often when people refer to the "grace" of other religions they are using it to mean "mercy", not a synonymous term with the Christian concept of Grace.
Major Splits in Hinduism
Way of Works:
- Karma marga
- Brahminical Ritual
Way of Knowledge:
- Jñana Marga
- Vedanta
- Atman-Brahman
Way of Devotion:
- Bhakti Marga
Buddhist conception of salvation:
4 Noble Truths:
1) To live is to suffer
2) Suffering is caused by desire
3) To eliminate suffering one must eliminate desire
4) To eliminate desire one must follow the 8-fold path
- Right concentration
- Right View
- Right intention
- Right speech
- Right action (10 Precepts)
- Right livelihood
- Right effort
- Right meditation
Salvation is ultimately elimination of one's self
Pure Land Buddhism- conception of "grace"
"Jodo-Shin-Shu" aka Pure Land
- Worships the Buddha Amida
- Amdia became a buddha in Heaven (Dhyani Buddha)
- Buddha of the West
- Amida created a "pure land" for people who chant to him. Anyone who chants to him will be reborn in this pure land as a male so as to be closer to achieving nirvana.
Obviously, the Pure Land Buddhism's conception of grace is drastically different from Christianity's conception of Grace.
Jainism
Goal: to escape from the cycle of reincarnation and the elimination of karma.
Mahavira (6th Century B.C.) founded Jainism. His story is similar to the Buddha. Mahavira received enlightenment, but unlike the Buddha, retained his ascetic lifestyle.
Tirthankaras - teachers of Jainism
Mahavira was the last of the 24 Tirthankaras.
Two Main Divisions:
1) Shvetambara - "Clad in White"
2) Disambara - "Clad in atmosphere"
In the Shvetambara women are are eligible for salvation, but in the Disambara women are ineligible for salvation.
Karma: Jainism believes in individual souls (as opposed to Buddhism and Hinduism). This is the Jiva.
Jiva, left to itself would rise to the top of the universe. But, Karma adds physical Ajiva to the soul, weighing it down. Ajiva causes the soul to sink.
Salvation is the removing of Ajiva (dead matter) from one's soul.
The most important principle of Jainism is ahimsa.
Conclusion
Religions do not just have different ways of salvation, but their conceptions of salvation are very different.
Monday, March 26, 2007
Quick survey of world religions
(Originally Written March 26, 2007 in Book 15)
A Tapestry of Faiths
The Common Threads Between Christianity & World Religions
Winfried Corduan
Intervarsity Press: Downers Grove, IL. 2002
Chapter 1: Asking the right Questions
Insofar as Christianity is the religion that expresses the preeminence of Christ, Christianity alone is true and worthwhile.
The relationship between Christianity and other religions have many dimensions of similarity.
1. The Soteriological Dimension
2. The Content Dimension
There are many beliefs that Christianity shares with other religions.
3. The Revelatory Dimension
Many religions claim truth is grounded in revelation.
4. The Apologetic Dimension
5. The Moral Dimension
Most religions include a moral system and many areas resemble each other.
6. The Communication Dimension
A Very Brief History of Religion
Traditional/tribal religions in contrast to enscripturated religions:
Traditional religions are closely tied to their local culture.
Traditional religions tend to be animistic and ritualistic.
They recognize nature spirits and ancestor spirits. Frequently they recognize a high god in the sky.
Western Religions in contrast to Eastern Traditions
Western traditions are largely monotheistic like Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Islam and Baha'i.
Monotheistic Western Religions Normally have:
1. A strong monotheistic emphasis
2. A strong ethical emphasis
3. A positive approach to history. History is an unfolding of divine revelation and action.
Eastern religions are religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Daoism, Confucianism and Shinto.
Buddhism and Jainism are direct offshoots of Hinduism.
Eastern religions are more divers in belief than Western Religions.
3. Beliefs in Contrast to Cultus:
Cultus is the rituals, altars, hymns, temples, offerings and modes of prayer.
The relationship between a belief system and its cultus can be extremely elastic.
I. Judaism
Origin: Moses, 15th Century B.C.
Essential Beliefs and Practices:
- Monotheism
- obedience to a divinely revealed law
Scriptures:
- The Hebrew Scriptures
- Interpretations of the Scriptures (i.e. the Talmud)
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Orthodox
- Conservative
- Reform
II. Zoroastrianism
Origin: Zoroaster, 6th Century B.C.
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Monotheism
- Conflict between God (Ahura Mazda) and the evil Spirt (Angra Mainyu)
- Ethical purity
- Ritual cleanliness
Major Contemporary Division
- None
III. Christianity
Origin: Christ, 1st Century A.D.
Essential Beliefs and Practices:
- Trinitarian Monotheism
- Jesus as the Messiah
Scriptures:
- The Bible (Old and New Testaments)
Major Contemporary Divisions:
- Eastern Orthodox
- Roman Catholic
- Protestant
IV. Islam
Origin: Muhammad, (A.D. 570 - 632)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Monotheism
- Allah
- Judgment based on their obedience to God's requirement
Scriptures
- The Qu'ran
- Hadith
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Sunnite
- Shi'ites
V. Baha'i
Origin: Baha'ullah 19th Century
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Baha'ullah was the manifestation of God
- Unity of all religions
- New World Order
Scriptures:
- The writings of Baha'ullah
Major Contemporary Divisions
- None
VI. Hinduism
Origin: 1500 B.C., religion of the Aryans who invaded the Indian subcontinent
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Extremely diverse
- Samsara (reincarnation)
- Karma
Scriptures
- The Vedas
- The Ramayana
- The Mahabharata
- Brahmans
- Sutras
- Puranas
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Monastic Groups
- Bhakti (personalistic)
- Vaishnavitas
- Shaivites
- Shaktites
VII. Buddhism
Origin: Gautama Buddha (600 B.C.)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Salvation = deliverance from the reincarnation cycle
- Nirvana
Scriptures:
- The Tripitaka
- The Lotus Sutra
- Other sutras
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Theravada (Hinayana)
- Mahayana
- Zen
- Pure Land
- Soka Gakkai
- Tibetan
VIII. Jainism
Origin: Mahavira (600 BC)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Redemption by elimination of solid karma matter from one's soul
- Worship of the Tirthankaras
Scriptures
- The Agamas
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Digambaras
- Svetambaras
IX. Sikhism
Origin: Guru Nanak (16th Century A.D.)
Essential beliefs and Practices:
- There is one God who is represented on earth by the Holy Book the Adi Granth.
- Escape from the reincarnation cycle
Scriptures
- Adi Granth
Major Contemporary Divisions
- None
X. Daoism
Origins - Lao Zi (Lao-Tzu)
Essential beliefs and practices
- Yin & Yang
Scriptures
- Daodejing
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Daoism is interconnected with other religions, especially Buddhism and Confucianism
XI. Confucianism
Origins: Confucius (6th Century B.C.)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Ethical System
Scriptures
- Analects
Major Contemporary Divisions
- None
XII. Shinto
A Tapestry of Faiths
The Common Threads Between Christianity & World Religions
Winfried Corduan
Intervarsity Press: Downers Grove, IL. 2002
Chapter 1: Asking the right Questions
Insofar as Christianity is the religion that expresses the preeminence of Christ, Christianity alone is true and worthwhile.
The relationship between Christianity and other religions have many dimensions of similarity.
1. The Soteriological Dimension
2. The Content Dimension
There are many beliefs that Christianity shares with other religions.
3. The Revelatory Dimension
Many religions claim truth is grounded in revelation.
4. The Apologetic Dimension
5. The Moral Dimension
Most religions include a moral system and many areas resemble each other.
6. The Communication Dimension
A Very Brief History of Religion
Traditional/tribal religions in contrast to enscripturated religions:
Traditional religions are closely tied to their local culture.
Traditional religions tend to be animistic and ritualistic.
They recognize nature spirits and ancestor spirits. Frequently they recognize a high god in the sky.
Western Religions in contrast to Eastern Traditions
Western traditions are largely monotheistic like Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Islam and Baha'i.
Monotheistic Western Religions Normally have:
1. A strong monotheistic emphasis
2. A strong ethical emphasis
3. A positive approach to history. History is an unfolding of divine revelation and action.
Eastern religions are religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Daoism, Confucianism and Shinto.
Buddhism and Jainism are direct offshoots of Hinduism.
Eastern religions are more divers in belief than Western Religions.
3. Beliefs in Contrast to Cultus:
Cultus is the rituals, altars, hymns, temples, offerings and modes of prayer.
The relationship between a belief system and its cultus can be extremely elastic.
I. Judaism
Origin: Moses, 15th Century B.C.
Essential Beliefs and Practices:
- Monotheism
- obedience to a divinely revealed law
Scriptures:
- The Hebrew Scriptures
- Interpretations of the Scriptures (i.e. the Talmud)
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Orthodox
- Conservative
- Reform
II. Zoroastrianism
Origin: Zoroaster, 6th Century B.C.
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Monotheism
- Conflict between God (Ahura Mazda) and the evil Spirt (Angra Mainyu)
- Ethical purity
- Ritual cleanliness
Major Contemporary Division
- None
III. Christianity
Origin: Christ, 1st Century A.D.
Essential Beliefs and Practices:
- Trinitarian Monotheism
- Jesus as the Messiah
Scriptures:
- The Bible (Old and New Testaments)
Major Contemporary Divisions:
- Eastern Orthodox
- Roman Catholic
- Protestant
IV. Islam
Origin: Muhammad, (A.D. 570 - 632)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Monotheism
- Allah
- Judgment based on their obedience to God's requirement
Scriptures
- The Qu'ran
- Hadith
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Sunnite
- Shi'ites
V. Baha'i
Origin: Baha'ullah 19th Century
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Baha'ullah was the manifestation of God
- Unity of all religions
- New World Order
Scriptures:
- The writings of Baha'ullah
Major Contemporary Divisions
- None
VI. Hinduism
Origin: 1500 B.C., religion of the Aryans who invaded the Indian subcontinent
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Extremely diverse
- Samsara (reincarnation)
- Karma
Scriptures
- The Vedas
- The Ramayana
- The Mahabharata
- Brahmans
- Sutras
- Puranas
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Monastic Groups
- Bhakti (personalistic)
- Vaishnavitas
- Shaivites
- Shaktites
VII. Buddhism
Origin: Gautama Buddha (600 B.C.)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Salvation = deliverance from the reincarnation cycle
- Nirvana
Scriptures:
- The Tripitaka
- The Lotus Sutra
- Other sutras
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Theravada (Hinayana)
- Mahayana
- Zen
- Pure Land
- Soka Gakkai
- Tibetan
VIII. Jainism
Origin: Mahavira (600 BC)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Redemption by elimination of solid karma matter from one's soul
- Worship of the Tirthankaras
Scriptures
- The Agamas
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Digambaras
- Svetambaras
IX. Sikhism
Origin: Guru Nanak (16th Century A.D.)
Essential beliefs and Practices:
- There is one God who is represented on earth by the Holy Book the Adi Granth.
- Escape from the reincarnation cycle
Scriptures
- Adi Granth
Major Contemporary Divisions
- None
X. Daoism
Origins - Lao Zi (Lao-Tzu)
Essential beliefs and practices
- Yin & Yang
Scriptures
- Daodejing
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Daoism is interconnected with other religions, especially Buddhism and Confucianism
XI. Confucianism
Origins: Confucius (6th Century B.C.)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Ethical System
Scriptures
- Analects
Major Contemporary Divisions
- None
XII. Shinto
Saturday, March 17, 2007
Functions of Rules in Various Religions
(Originally written March 17, 2007 in Book 15)
Class Notes
Moral purity vs. Ceremonial Purity
Ritual defilement can:
1) Occur if something is so evil that it may not be touched
2) Occur if something is so holy that it may not be touched
Defilement results in either
1) of one's self
2) of the holy object
Taboo - ultimate form of ritual defilement
Functions of the Rules in Various Religions
Western Religions:
- God as Lawgiver
- People are accountable to God
- Includes interpersonal dimension
Eastern Religions
- Rules are intrinsic to the universe
Lutheran Conception of Law
- 1st use of the Law: makes possible a livable society
- 2nd use of the Law: "Schoolmaster" - display our sinfulness to drive us to the Grace in Christ
- 3rd use of the law: evidence of regeneration
Judaism conception of Law
- The law demonstrates the righteousness that is characteristic for the people of God.
- makes the world a better place
- limited demands on Gentiles
- not tied to heaven or hell in a strict sense
Islamic conception of Law
- Rules as a test to qualify for paradise
5 Pillars of Islam:
1) Confession
2) Prayer
3) Fasting
4) Almsgiving
5) Pilgrimage
Indic Religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism
- Rules are intrinsic to the universe
- divinity revealed the law
- binding on all beings, including gods
Confucianism's conception of rules
- rules bring about harmony among people
- harmony among people brings harmony in the universe
Class Notes
Moral purity vs. Ceremonial Purity
Ritual defilement can:
1) Occur if something is so evil that it may not be touched
2) Occur if something is so holy that it may not be touched
Defilement results in either
1) of one's self
2) of the holy object
Taboo - ultimate form of ritual defilement
Functions of the Rules in Various Religions
Western Religions:
- God as Lawgiver
- People are accountable to God
- Includes interpersonal dimension
Eastern Religions
- Rules are intrinsic to the universe
Lutheran Conception of Law
- 1st use of the Law: makes possible a livable society
- 2nd use of the Law: "Schoolmaster" - display our sinfulness to drive us to the Grace in Christ
- 3rd use of the law: evidence of regeneration
Judaism conception of Law
- The law demonstrates the righteousness that is characteristic for the people of God.
- makes the world a better place
- limited demands on Gentiles
- not tied to heaven or hell in a strict sense
Islamic conception of Law
- Rules as a test to qualify for paradise
5 Pillars of Islam:
1) Confession
2) Prayer
3) Fasting
4) Almsgiving
5) Pilgrimage
Indic Religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism
- Rules are intrinsic to the universe
- divinity revealed the law
- binding on all beings, including gods
Confucianism's conception of rules
- rules bring about harmony among people
- harmony among people brings harmony in the universe
Sunday, February 18, 2007
Chapter 9 - Pocket Guide to World Religions
(Originally written February 18, 2007 in Book 9)
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter Nine: Jainism
Name
Jainism is derived from the Sanskrit word jina. Tina means "conquerer". A Jain is a "follower of the conquerer". The conquerer refers to the founder of the religion, Mahavira.
To the outsider, Jainism appears similar to Hinduism.
Numbers and Distribution
There are 4 million Jains in the world today.
The vast majority live in India, but Kenya has a number of Jains because of Indian immigration.
There is an active Jain temple in Chicago.
Symbols
Jainism has many symbols but for a millennia it had no universal symbol.
In 1975, a global convention of Jains met to observe the 2500th anniversary of Mahavira's death and devised a single symbol. It combined five elements:
1. The outside is a person's torso, the shape Jains imagine the universe exists in.
2) The arc represents the head of the human shape, the dot represents those who have attained liberation.
3) The three dots stand for the three Jain principles: faith, right knowledge and right conduct
4) The swastika has many meanings: entanglement in the cycle of reincarnations, the four kinds of beings in need of salvation: gods, humans, animals and demons
5) the hand indicates a blessing and a warning. Inside the hand is a wheel with 24 spokes. Each spoke represents an ancient teacher (the Tirthankaras). Inside the wheel is the inscription "ahimsa" which means non-violence. Non-violence is the most basic principle of Jainism
History
Jainism was founded by Mahavira, who lived in the 6th century BC. He was the son of making who renounced his wealth and leisure to find enlightenment. He then lived a life of extreme self-mortification, punishing his body to liberate his soul. At the brink of death he experienced a flash of enlightenment.
Unlike the Buddha, Mahavira di not cease to live an ascetic life. He recruited others to emulate his lifestyle.
Jainism split from Hinduism because it didn't acknowledge the caste system or divinity of the Hindu scriptures.
Jainism's central belief not to harm any living beings is so strict it denies farming as a valid occupation.
Jains became good commerce and finance occupations.
Scriptures
There are many Jain writings. The most popular collection of Scriptures is the Agam Sutras, but they are not universally accepted.
Major Beliefs
Jainism's main focus is on liberation from the cycle of reincarnation.
Jainism teaches the law of karma.
Jainism teaches that each being has its own soul and its own divinity. The soul is called a jiva and it is trapped in a cycle of births and rebirths. The goal of each jiva is to rise to the top of the universe to enjoy peace. Ajiva (or dead matter) clings to the soul and keeps it trapped in its current bondage. Ajiva is depicted as granules that weigh the soul down and the more bad karma one accrues, the more ajiva sets piled on one's jiva.
The point of Jainism is to purify one's soul of all ajiva in order to enter the permanent state of bliss. Removing bad karma from one's soul is something all persons need to do for themselves.
The gods are ambivalent role in Jainism.
Jainism vigorously denies the existence of a creator or sustainer of the universe.
The Hindu gods are recognized in Jainism, but seen as being in need of salvation. The gods must be reborn in human form to receive salvation through personal enlightenment.
There are five vows one must take to achieve enlightenment.
1) Ahisma - never harming many living thing. Eating can be given up to remove all karma.
2) Always tell the truth. One must qualify all of one's speech so that no one can mishear them.
3) Never steal property
4) Avoid all sexual contact
5) Do not get attached to anything material. One must limit one's sensory input as much as possible.
Mahavira showed the way to enlightenment. He was a jina (a conqueror) and a Tirthankara (a ford finder). Mahavira was the last of the 24 Tirthankara.
Even though Tirthankaras are not gods in Jainism, they are worshipped as such in Jain temples.
Subgroups
There are two major subgroups and a number of small ones. The two major subgroups are:
1) Svetambara - "clad in white". The monks wear white.
2) Digambara - "clad in atmosphere". The monks wear only air.
Digambara Jainists believe that one cannot attain enlightenment while wearing clothes and that women cannot go naked. Thus, they believe that women cannot be enlightened.
The Svetambara believe that women can attain enlightenment and that one of the Tirthankaras was a woman named Subidhi.
Worship practices
One attaining enlightenment through strictly observing precepts.
In the Jain temples people focus on the teachings of the Tirthankaras and venerate their statues.
They meditate in the temples.
Religious Buildings
Jain temples are usually highly ornate and white on the outside.
Inside a temple there are decorations to aid meditation.
There are statues of the Tirthankaras in an isolated room. Worshippers must wear cloths on their face to not contaminate the purity of the air with their breath.
Home Practices
Jains believe that only monks can remove all karma to attain enlightenment.
The laity of Jainism work to remove as much karma as possible to have a favorable reincarnation.
Clothing
Laypersons must dress modestly. Monks split over wearing white robes and going nude.
Diet
Laypersons eat a strict vegetarian diet. This is still a compromise because plants are living creatures and they believe that they are incurring karma every time they eat.
Monks only eat what was going to be thrown away.
Calendar
Jains follow a lunar calendar that keeps step with the solar year.
All groups celebrate the birthday of Mahavira, which roughly falls into April.
The other main holiday is a 10-day fast used as a time of reflection and prayer.
The Svetambras call this Paryusham and hold it in August. The Digambaras observe their fast as the Das Lakshon in September.
Jainism is a culture based on rigorous ethical principles, paying a high respect for truth.
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter Nine: Jainism
Name
Jainism is derived from the Sanskrit word jina. Tina means "conquerer". A Jain is a "follower of the conquerer". The conquerer refers to the founder of the religion, Mahavira.
To the outsider, Jainism appears similar to Hinduism.
Numbers and Distribution
There are 4 million Jains in the world today.
The vast majority live in India, but Kenya has a number of Jains because of Indian immigration.
There is an active Jain temple in Chicago.
Symbols
Jainism has many symbols but for a millennia it had no universal symbol.
In 1975, a global convention of Jains met to observe the 2500th anniversary of Mahavira's death and devised a single symbol. It combined five elements:
1. The outside is a person's torso, the shape Jains imagine the universe exists in.
2) The arc represents the head of the human shape, the dot represents those who have attained liberation.
3) The three dots stand for the three Jain principles: faith, right knowledge and right conduct
4) The swastika has many meanings: entanglement in the cycle of reincarnations, the four kinds of beings in need of salvation: gods, humans, animals and demons
5) the hand indicates a blessing and a warning. Inside the hand is a wheel with 24 spokes. Each spoke represents an ancient teacher (the Tirthankaras). Inside the wheel is the inscription "ahimsa" which means non-violence. Non-violence is the most basic principle of Jainism
History
Jainism was founded by Mahavira, who lived in the 6th century BC. He was the son of making who renounced his wealth and leisure to find enlightenment. He then lived a life of extreme self-mortification, punishing his body to liberate his soul. At the brink of death he experienced a flash of enlightenment.
Unlike the Buddha, Mahavira di not cease to live an ascetic life. He recruited others to emulate his lifestyle.
Jainism split from Hinduism because it didn't acknowledge the caste system or divinity of the Hindu scriptures.
Jainism's central belief not to harm any living beings is so strict it denies farming as a valid occupation.
Jains became good commerce and finance occupations.
Scriptures
There are many Jain writings. The most popular collection of Scriptures is the Agam Sutras, but they are not universally accepted.
Major Beliefs
Jainism's main focus is on liberation from the cycle of reincarnation.
Jainism teaches the law of karma.
Jainism teaches that each being has its own soul and its own divinity. The soul is called a jiva and it is trapped in a cycle of births and rebirths. The goal of each jiva is to rise to the top of the universe to enjoy peace. Ajiva (or dead matter) clings to the soul and keeps it trapped in its current bondage. Ajiva is depicted as granules that weigh the soul down and the more bad karma one accrues, the more ajiva sets piled on one's jiva.
The point of Jainism is to purify one's soul of all ajiva in order to enter the permanent state of bliss. Removing bad karma from one's soul is something all persons need to do for themselves.
The gods are ambivalent role in Jainism.
Jainism vigorously denies the existence of a creator or sustainer of the universe.
The Hindu gods are recognized in Jainism, but seen as being in need of salvation. The gods must be reborn in human form to receive salvation through personal enlightenment.
There are five vows one must take to achieve enlightenment.
1) Ahisma - never harming many living thing. Eating can be given up to remove all karma.
2) Always tell the truth. One must qualify all of one's speech so that no one can mishear them.
3) Never steal property
4) Avoid all sexual contact
5) Do not get attached to anything material. One must limit one's sensory input as much as possible.
Mahavira showed the way to enlightenment. He was a jina (a conqueror) and a Tirthankara (a ford finder). Mahavira was the last of the 24 Tirthankara.
Even though Tirthankaras are not gods in Jainism, they are worshipped as such in Jain temples.
Subgroups
There are two major subgroups and a number of small ones. The two major subgroups are:
1) Svetambara - "clad in white". The monks wear white.
2) Digambara - "clad in atmosphere". The monks wear only air.
Digambara Jainists believe that one cannot attain enlightenment while wearing clothes and that women cannot go naked. Thus, they believe that women cannot be enlightened.
The Svetambara believe that women can attain enlightenment and that one of the Tirthankaras was a woman named Subidhi.
Worship practices
One attaining enlightenment through strictly observing precepts.
In the Jain temples people focus on the teachings of the Tirthankaras and venerate their statues.
They meditate in the temples.
Religious Buildings
Jain temples are usually highly ornate and white on the outside.
Inside a temple there are decorations to aid meditation.
There are statues of the Tirthankaras in an isolated room. Worshippers must wear cloths on their face to not contaminate the purity of the air with their breath.
Home Practices
Jains believe that only monks can remove all karma to attain enlightenment.
The laity of Jainism work to remove as much karma as possible to have a favorable reincarnation.
Clothing
Laypersons must dress modestly. Monks split over wearing white robes and going nude.
Diet
Laypersons eat a strict vegetarian diet. This is still a compromise because plants are living creatures and they believe that they are incurring karma every time they eat.
Monks only eat what was going to be thrown away.
Calendar
Jains follow a lunar calendar that keeps step with the solar year.
All groups celebrate the birthday of Mahavira, which roughly falls into April.
The other main holiday is a 10-day fast used as a time of reflection and prayer.
The Svetambras call this Paryusham and hold it in August. The Digambaras observe their fast as the Das Lakshon in September.
Jainism is a culture based on rigorous ethical principles, paying a high respect for truth.
Chapter 7 - Pocket Guide to World Religions
(Originally written February 18, 2007 in Book 14)
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 7 - Hinduism
Name
Hinduism is a Western created word to encompass the religious and social system of India.
Hindus refer to their religion as the dharma, which means "the way" or "the religion".
Numbers and Distribution
There are approximately 900 million Hindus worldwide.
The largest numbers of Hindus live in India, including the 300 million "untouchables" who are considered Hindus, but cannot fully participate in the religion.
Symbols
Symbols play an important role in Hinduism.
The most universal symbol is the Om. Om is a sound that has no literal meaning but that is supposed represent the totality of the spiritual universe.
The swastika is also a prevalent symbol in Hinduism, but is not displayed in the West. It represents prosperity and good fortune in Hinduism.
History
Hinduism began as the religion of a group of people migrations to the Indian subcontinent from central Asia. These people are called the Aryans (not to be confused with the racist ideology of Hitler's race). The Aryans migrated around 1500 BC. They worshiped a few gods with animal sacrifice.
The priests of the Aryans were called Brahmins. The Brahmins recorded prayers and sacrificial formulas in books called Vedas. The Brahmins introduced new rules and regulations, altering Hinduism dramatically.
The Caste system developed and the belief in reincarnation became a vital part of Hinduism.
This early form of Hinduism is sometimes referred to as "the way of works" because of its emphasis on the Brahmin ritualistic and legalistic emphasis.
Around the 6th century BC the people reacted against the Brahmin legalism. Buddhism and Jainism emerged out of this reaction, and a new understanding of Hinduism emerged.
"The way of knowledge", the process of finding God within one's self replaced "the way of works". But, "The way of works" and "the way of knowledge" coexist and influence one another.
By the 8th century AD, "the way of devotion" had emerged. This interpretation of Hinduism focuses on one particular god or goddess.
Modern Hinduism blends all three ways but "the way of devotion" is the major influence.
1. Way of Works - based on sacrifices and rituals
2. Way of knowledge - based on finding God within one's self
3. Way of Devotion - based on a person's relationship with a particular deity.
1. Way of works is called Brahmanism or Vedic Hinduism
2. Way of knowledge is called Vedantic Hinduism
3. Way of Devotion is called Bhakti Hinduism
Scriptures
Hinduism has many writings that are organized into two main categories:
1. Shruti - writings "heard" from the gods by holy men (richis)
2. Smriti - writings handed down by tradition
The Smriti contain mostly stories, so average Hindus pay the most attention to them.
The Shruti contain thoughts and beliefs and are usually confined to priests and scholars.
Many Hindu scholars believe that the Scriptures were only written down a few centuries ago and that they were passed down orally for generations.
Shruti:
1) Vedas
2) Brahmanas
3) Sutras
4) Law of Manu
5) Upanishads
Smriti:
1) Mahabharata
2) Bhagavad Gita
3) Ramayana
4) Puranas
Major Beliefs
Hinduism has no mandatory set of beliefs but most agree on certain concepts.
What most Hindus agree on:
1. Life is hard and full of suffering
2. Reincarnation
3. What you come back as is based on what you have done in previous lives. (Law of Karma)
Hinduism, in all its forms, attempts to find a way out of the never-ending cycle of lives, deaths and rebirths.
What many Hindus agree on: ritual obligations
A large number of Hindus consider it important to maintain fundamental rules of life.
Hindu culture is woven into the fabric of Hindu society and Hindus cling to ritual obligations regardless of their religious convictions.
What many Hindus agree on: Vedantic Hinduism
The most important problem of all human beings is that they have forgotten they are living in an unreal world.
The is a true reality: the Brahman.
The Brahman is the spiritual being that is ultimately beyond understanding or description.
If we treat our experiences (maya) of the world as real, we will remain trapped in the cycle of reincarnation. If we realize that deep within ourselves there is a self (atman) that is identical with Brahman we are on the way to escaping the never-ending cycle of reincarnation.
What many Hindus agree on: Bhakti Hinduism
Some Hindus believe that all gods are manifestations of the Brahman, others believe that their specific god or goddess is the supreme being.
There're are 300 million gods in Hinduism, but not all gods are equal in importance.
The are 3 main gods (traditionally)
1) Brahma - creator of the universe
2) Vishnu - the preserver
3) Shiva - the destroyer of the world.
Each of these gods has a female counterpart, a shaky, who brings out his power
1) Brahma - Sarasvati, the goddess of learning
2) Vishnu - Lakshmi, the goddess of fortune
3) Shiva - Parvati, his devoted wife
- Durga, the goddess of death
- Kali, the destroyer of evil
Vishnu is extremely important because he occasionally incarnates himself to restore order. His most prominent incarnations (avatars) include Krishna and Rama.
Gods:
Deity/Function/Depiction
-Brahma, the creator, four heads
-Saraswati, Brahma's wife, goddess of learning, stringed instrument
-Vishnu, preserver, blue, conch shell, discuss, staff
-Lakshmi, Vishnu's wife, goddess of fortune, Blue conch shell
-Shiva, destroyer, trident, three horizontal stripes
-Paravati, Shiva's wife, depicted with Shiva
-Durga, goddess of death, eight or ten arms, long spear, riding a lion
-Kali, destroyer of demons, black grimaced face, skull necklace rides a tiger
-Rama, avatar of Vishnu, ideal king, Green with a large bow
-Krishna, Avatar of Vishnu, cowherd, Dark blue or black with a flute
-Ganesha, son of Shiva, remover of obstacles, Elephant head
-Hanuman, Grand vizier of the monkeys, green monkey, often with Rama
Subgroups
Subgroups can be distinguished by their devotion o a main god. There could be countless subgroups, but there are three main ones:
1) Vishnavites - Vishnu is head god
2) Shaivites - Shiva is head god
3) Shaktites - Kali or Durga is head god.
Some groups of Hinduism practice yoga to liberate one's spirit from their body.
Another way of grouping Hindus is the caste system. While the caste system is a social construct, it has a profound impact on religious life.
Brahmins - Priests
Kshatriyas - Warriors or rulers
Vaishyas - Merchants, landowners
Shudras - workers
Dalits - outcasts
Worship Practices
Worship is performed before statues of gods in the home and temple.
Hindus believe that the god/goddess live in the statue as long as the statue is properly cared for.
The worship is called puja. Puja can be simple at home and last for only a few minutes. It can also be very ornate in temple settings.
Religious buildings
A Hindu temple is often highly decorated and dedicated to a specific deity.
Temples normally have a statue of the main god in the most prominent palace, and a statue of Ganesha to the right of it.
Home Practices
Traditionally, a Hindu house hold has a statue of a god that must be worshipped daily.
Women have a special duty to make pilgrimages for their family.
Women also decorate the front door with Kola diagrams. Kola diagrams are designed made of colored rice to be eaten by ants as an offering to gods and spirits.
Clothing
Little of traditional Indian dress is considered intrinsically religious.
Masks on the face or forehead can be very significant.
Devotees of particular deities will rub ash on their face after worship. Shaivites mark their forehead with three horizontal stripes. Vaishnavites make two vertical lines that converge on the bridge of the nose.
The red spot on the forehead of women is called the bindi. Bindi means "little drop". The Bindi lets the world know that the wearer is a Hindu and a married woman.
Some unmarried girls have a spot on their forehead to protect against the "evil eye".
Diet
Hindus do not eat beef because the cow is considered sacred.
Many Hindus are vegetarians, but not all.
Calendar
Hindus follow a lunar calendar.
Festivals are put on the full full moon, 10 fall in the middle of the moth.
Because of sectarian and regional differences the same festival is celebrated to different gods on a regular basis.
Some important celebrations:
1. Diwali (late October/Early November)
- most important and most widespread of all Hindu holidays
- honors a godess, usually Lakshmi
- sometimes considered New Year's Day
2. Pangal (January)
- primarily a South Indian celebration
- Some times considered a New Year's
- festival of fertility, not devoted to a specific god
- women make kola diagrams, men fly kites
- cows are adorned with garland
3. Taipusam (late January, early February)
- entirely a South Indian holiday
- dedicated to Muruka, the son of Shiva
- devotion expressed through acts of austerity and self-immolation
4. Holi (late February, early March)
- honors Krishna
- honors his pranks played as a youth
- 5 days of high spirits
- on the 5th day people throw buckets of colored water on one another
Every deity has his or her own birthday or day of descent.
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 7 - Hinduism
Name
Hinduism is a Western created word to encompass the religious and social system of India.
Hindus refer to their religion as the dharma, which means "the way" or "the religion".
Numbers and Distribution
There are approximately 900 million Hindus worldwide.
The largest numbers of Hindus live in India, including the 300 million "untouchables" who are considered Hindus, but cannot fully participate in the religion.
Symbols
Symbols play an important role in Hinduism.
The most universal symbol is the Om. Om is a sound that has no literal meaning but that is supposed represent the totality of the spiritual universe.
The swastika is also a prevalent symbol in Hinduism, but is not displayed in the West. It represents prosperity and good fortune in Hinduism.
History
Hinduism began as the religion of a group of people migrations to the Indian subcontinent from central Asia. These people are called the Aryans (not to be confused with the racist ideology of Hitler's race). The Aryans migrated around 1500 BC. They worshiped a few gods with animal sacrifice.
The priests of the Aryans were called Brahmins. The Brahmins recorded prayers and sacrificial formulas in books called Vedas. The Brahmins introduced new rules and regulations, altering Hinduism dramatically.
The Caste system developed and the belief in reincarnation became a vital part of Hinduism.
This early form of Hinduism is sometimes referred to as "the way of works" because of its emphasis on the Brahmin ritualistic and legalistic emphasis.
Around the 6th century BC the people reacted against the Brahmin legalism. Buddhism and Jainism emerged out of this reaction, and a new understanding of Hinduism emerged.
"The way of knowledge", the process of finding God within one's self replaced "the way of works". But, "The way of works" and "the way of knowledge" coexist and influence one another.
By the 8th century AD, "the way of devotion" had emerged. This interpretation of Hinduism focuses on one particular god or goddess.
Modern Hinduism blends all three ways but "the way of devotion" is the major influence.
1. Way of Works - based on sacrifices and rituals
2. Way of knowledge - based on finding God within one's self
3. Way of Devotion - based on a person's relationship with a particular deity.
1. Way of works is called Brahmanism or Vedic Hinduism
2. Way of knowledge is called Vedantic Hinduism
3. Way of Devotion is called Bhakti Hinduism
Scriptures
Hinduism has many writings that are organized into two main categories:
1. Shruti - writings "heard" from the gods by holy men (richis)
2. Smriti - writings handed down by tradition
The Smriti contain mostly stories, so average Hindus pay the most attention to them.
The Shruti contain thoughts and beliefs and are usually confined to priests and scholars.
Many Hindu scholars believe that the Scriptures were only written down a few centuries ago and that they were passed down orally for generations.
Shruti:
1) Vedas
2) Brahmanas
3) Sutras
4) Law of Manu
5) Upanishads
Smriti:
1) Mahabharata
2) Bhagavad Gita
3) Ramayana
4) Puranas
Major Beliefs
Hinduism has no mandatory set of beliefs but most agree on certain concepts.
What most Hindus agree on:
1. Life is hard and full of suffering
2. Reincarnation
3. What you come back as is based on what you have done in previous lives. (Law of Karma)
Hinduism, in all its forms, attempts to find a way out of the never-ending cycle of lives, deaths and rebirths.
What many Hindus agree on: ritual obligations
A large number of Hindus consider it important to maintain fundamental rules of life.
Hindu culture is woven into the fabric of Hindu society and Hindus cling to ritual obligations regardless of their religious convictions.
What many Hindus agree on: Vedantic Hinduism
The most important problem of all human beings is that they have forgotten they are living in an unreal world.
The is a true reality: the Brahman.
The Brahman is the spiritual being that is ultimately beyond understanding or description.
If we treat our experiences (maya) of the world as real, we will remain trapped in the cycle of reincarnation. If we realize that deep within ourselves there is a self (atman) that is identical with Brahman we are on the way to escaping the never-ending cycle of reincarnation.
What many Hindus agree on: Bhakti Hinduism
Some Hindus believe that all gods are manifestations of the Brahman, others believe that their specific god or goddess is the supreme being.
There're are 300 million gods in Hinduism, but not all gods are equal in importance.
The are 3 main gods (traditionally)
1) Brahma - creator of the universe
2) Vishnu - the preserver
3) Shiva - the destroyer of the world.
Each of these gods has a female counterpart, a shaky, who brings out his power
1) Brahma - Sarasvati, the goddess of learning
2) Vishnu - Lakshmi, the goddess of fortune
3) Shiva - Parvati, his devoted wife
- Durga, the goddess of death
- Kali, the destroyer of evil
Vishnu is extremely important because he occasionally incarnates himself to restore order. His most prominent incarnations (avatars) include Krishna and Rama.
Gods:
Deity/Function/Depiction
-Brahma, the creator, four heads
-Saraswati, Brahma's wife, goddess of learning, stringed instrument
-Vishnu, preserver, blue, conch shell, discuss, staff
-Lakshmi, Vishnu's wife, goddess of fortune, Blue conch shell
-Shiva, destroyer, trident, three horizontal stripes
-Paravati, Shiva's wife, depicted with Shiva
-Durga, goddess of death, eight or ten arms, long spear, riding a lion
-Kali, destroyer of demons, black grimaced face, skull necklace rides a tiger
-Rama, avatar of Vishnu, ideal king, Green with a large bow
-Krishna, Avatar of Vishnu, cowherd, Dark blue or black with a flute
-Ganesha, son of Shiva, remover of obstacles, Elephant head
-Hanuman, Grand vizier of the monkeys, green monkey, often with Rama
Subgroups
Subgroups can be distinguished by their devotion o a main god. There could be countless subgroups, but there are three main ones:
1) Vishnavites - Vishnu is head god
2) Shaivites - Shiva is head god
3) Shaktites - Kali or Durga is head god.
Some groups of Hinduism practice yoga to liberate one's spirit from their body.
Another way of grouping Hindus is the caste system. While the caste system is a social construct, it has a profound impact on religious life.
Brahmins - Priests
Kshatriyas - Warriors or rulers
Vaishyas - Merchants, landowners
Shudras - workers
Dalits - outcasts
Worship Practices
Worship is performed before statues of gods in the home and temple.
Hindus believe that the god/goddess live in the statue as long as the statue is properly cared for.
The worship is called puja. Puja can be simple at home and last for only a few minutes. It can also be very ornate in temple settings.
Religious buildings
A Hindu temple is often highly decorated and dedicated to a specific deity.
Temples normally have a statue of the main god in the most prominent palace, and a statue of Ganesha to the right of it.
Home Practices
Traditionally, a Hindu house hold has a statue of a god that must be worshipped daily.
Women have a special duty to make pilgrimages for their family.
Women also decorate the front door with Kola diagrams. Kola diagrams are designed made of colored rice to be eaten by ants as an offering to gods and spirits.
Clothing
Little of traditional Indian dress is considered intrinsically religious.
Masks on the face or forehead can be very significant.
Devotees of particular deities will rub ash on their face after worship. Shaivites mark their forehead with three horizontal stripes. Vaishnavites make two vertical lines that converge on the bridge of the nose.
The red spot on the forehead of women is called the bindi. Bindi means "little drop". The Bindi lets the world know that the wearer is a Hindu and a married woman.
Some unmarried girls have a spot on their forehead to protect against the "evil eye".
Diet
Hindus do not eat beef because the cow is considered sacred.
Many Hindus are vegetarians, but not all.
Calendar
Hindus follow a lunar calendar.
Festivals are put on the full full moon, 10 fall in the middle of the moth.
Because of sectarian and regional differences the same festival is celebrated to different gods on a regular basis.
Some important celebrations:
1. Diwali (late October/Early November)
- most important and most widespread of all Hindu holidays
- honors a godess, usually Lakshmi
- sometimes considered New Year's Day
2. Pangal (January)
- primarily a South Indian celebration
- Some times considered a New Year's
- festival of fertility, not devoted to a specific god
- women make kola diagrams, men fly kites
- cows are adorned with garland
3. Taipusam (late January, early February)
- entirely a South Indian holiday
- dedicated to Muruka, the son of Shiva
- devotion expressed through acts of austerity and self-immolation
4. Holi (late February, early March)
- honors Krishna
- honors his pranks played as a youth
- 5 days of high spirits
- on the 5th day people throw buckets of colored water on one another
Every deity has his or her own birthday or day of descent.
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