(Originally written January 31, 2007 in Book 7)
Philosophy of Religion
John Hick
Ch. 4 - The Problem of Evil
The Problem
The main reason people cannot believe in a loving God is the depth and extent of human suffering and the selfishness and greed of humanity.
Evil - physical pain, mental suffering, and moral wickedness.
Moral wickedness is the cause of physical pain and mental suffering.
The form of the problem of evil is often a dilemma:
1) If God is perfectly loving, God must want to abolish all evil
2) If God is all-powerful, He must be able to abolish all evil
3) Evil exists
4) Theefore, God cannot be both omnipotent and perfectly loving.
One possible solution is to state that evil is an illusion of the human mind. But, this is unacceptable in the Judaeo-Christian tradition.
There are three main Christian responses to the problem of evil:
1) Augustinian - the concept of the Fall
2) Irenaeus - gradual creation of perfected humanity through life in an imperfect world
3) Process theology - God is not all-powerful
All three use the free will defense. Humans are free to act wrongly and rightly. It states that a genuinely free moral agent and the possibility of evil are logically inseparable.
The Augustinian Theodicy
Augustine held that evil has a negative or privative nature. He holds the universe to be a creation by a good God for a good purpose. Everything that has being is good because it has been created. Some things with being are more good and others are less good. Evil is a going wrong of something inherently good. "Evil always consists of the malfunctioning of something that is in itself good" (Hick, 43).
Evil came about when angels turned from the Supreme Good (God) to lesser goods. The same happened with Adam and Eve.
The natural evils are thus punishments and a result of the chaos man has thrown upon his dominion.
Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834) a German Protestant, was the first to criticize Augustine. He stated how could a perfect God create a perfect universe that somehow went wrong? Basically a flawless creation would never go wrong.
The Irenaean Theodicy
St. Irenaeus (130-202 A.D.) distinguished between two stages of creation of humanity.
Creation - they were created as immature creatures
Maturation process (life) - they matured into the children of God
God's purpose in creation was not to construct a paradise. It was made to create souls who would inherit eternal life through struggle and maturity.
Process Theodicy
Process theology is built upon the metaphysical framework of A. N. Whitehead's philosophy. Process theology holds that God cannot be omnipotent. He interacts with he process of the universe, which he didn't create but is able to influence.
Process theology holds that God is a part of the universe which is an uncreated process.
Evil is the event when the power of God's will is thwarted.
Process theodicy has been severely criticized. One criticism is that it involves a morally and religiously unacceptable elitism. God is somehow satisfied with the mass majority suffering and living unfulfilled lives so that a few can become marvelous human beings.
Wednesday, January 31, 2007
Philosophy of Religion - Hick: Ch. 3 (B)
(Originally written January 31, 2007 in Book 7)
Philosophy of Religion
John Hick
Chapter 3 (continued)
The Freudian Theory of Religion
Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939) regarded religious beliefs as "illusions, fulfillment's of the oldest, strongest, and most insistent wishes of mankind" (Hick, 34).
Religion is a mental defense against the threatening aspects of nature, i.e. earthquakes, hurricanes, etc.
Religion is the "universal obsessional neurosis of humanity" (Hick, 34).
Freud associated religion with the universal Oedipus complex of mankind.
Freud saw faith as a 'psychological crutch'.
The Challenge of Modern Science
The Biblical writers have a pre-scientific worldview and their account of nature must be separated from their divine inspiration.
The more science discovered, the more the Church opposed. But, critically thinking deists and Christians can piece together science and faith.
The sciences have cumulatively shows that nature can be studied without any reference to God. But does it follow from this that there is no God?
God could have epistemically distanced himself from man and created a relatively autonomous universe which man can exist in with a degree of independence.
God could have created man as free and responsible beings in an autonomous universe.
Science can neither confirm or deny the existence of God.
Miracles can be shown to be either compatible or incompatible with an autonomous universe. It is based on the use of the term 'miracle'. If 'miracle' is defined as a breach of natural law, one can declare a priori that there are no miracles.
A school of theological thought maintains that miracles presuppose faith. They are an inner understanding of a natural, however odd, event. They are not an evangelical tool.
One can neither prove or disprove (conclusively) the existence of God.
Philosophy of Religion
John Hick
Chapter 3 (continued)
The Freudian Theory of Religion
Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939) regarded religious beliefs as "illusions, fulfillment's of the oldest, strongest, and most insistent wishes of mankind" (Hick, 34).
Religion is a mental defense against the threatening aspects of nature, i.e. earthquakes, hurricanes, etc.
Religion is the "universal obsessional neurosis of humanity" (Hick, 34).
Freud associated religion with the universal Oedipus complex of mankind.
Freud saw faith as a 'psychological crutch'.
The Challenge of Modern Science
The Biblical writers have a pre-scientific worldview and their account of nature must be separated from their divine inspiration.
The more science discovered, the more the Church opposed. But, critically thinking deists and Christians can piece together science and faith.
The sciences have cumulatively shows that nature can be studied without any reference to God. But does it follow from this that there is no God?
God could have epistemically distanced himself from man and created a relatively autonomous universe which man can exist in with a degree of independence.
God could have created man as free and responsible beings in an autonomous universe.
Science can neither confirm or deny the existence of God.
Miracles can be shown to be either compatible or incompatible with an autonomous universe. It is based on the use of the term 'miracle'. If 'miracle' is defined as a breach of natural law, one can declare a priori that there are no miracles.
A school of theological thought maintains that miracles presuppose faith. They are an inner understanding of a natural, however odd, event. They are not an evangelical tool.
One can neither prove or disprove (conclusively) the existence of God.
Wednesday, January 24, 2007
Rhetoric Class Notes on Augustine
(Originally written January 24, 2007 in Book 12)
Class Notes
Augustine of Hippo
Definition of Rhetoric
- Eloquence with wisdom
- good teaching and correcting the wrong
- the means of instruction
The function of discourse
- conciliate the hostile
- arouse the careless
- inform the ignorant
Augustine states that we must make truth:
1) Clear
2) Appealing
3) Convincing
Why do we need rhetoric?
- Godliness
- To move people to God
-To make obscure things clear
- To be able to respond to the audience
Augustine is more interested in teaching, rather than persuasion in rhetoric.
Style
The way you speak ought to be proper to the subject matter.
Be careful not to make the audience weary of a point.
The point of the speech is to make the listener understand.
The most important thing is clarity.
Augustine is primarily concerned with rhetoric in dealing with ecclesiastical oratory.
Augustine's emphasis of prayer
- One ought to pray before speaking
- One should pray in labor to make himself understood
- One ought to pray to God to put a good speech upon one's lips
Role of the Holy Spirit
use Pathos & Ethos
Augustine's usage ethos as the life
- live in a way that cannot be condemned
- the life of the speaker is most persuasive
- How can one express in words what they do not do in deeds?
- An ecclesiastic orator must have a godly life
Augustine is the first to advocate the usage of vernacular. It doesn't matter how eloquent you are if the audience can't understand you.
Important ideas:
- Clarity, not victory is the goal of rhetoric
- Using Scripture as proof
- teaching emphasis
- 3 Styles in the same speech
In the process of learning rhetoric, Augustine follows Cicero's method of imitation, theory and practice.
The goal of rhetoric is the glorification of God.
(I am so BoReDeDeD!)
Class Notes
Augustine of Hippo
Definition of Rhetoric
- Eloquence with wisdom
- good teaching and correcting the wrong
- the means of instruction
The function of discourse
- conciliate the hostile
- arouse the careless
- inform the ignorant
Augustine states that we must make truth:
1) Clear
2) Appealing
3) Convincing
Why do we need rhetoric?
- Godliness
- To move people to God
-To make obscure things clear
- To be able to respond to the audience
Augustine is more interested in teaching, rather than persuasion in rhetoric.
Style
The way you speak ought to be proper to the subject matter.
Be careful not to make the audience weary of a point.
The point of the speech is to make the listener understand.
The most important thing is clarity.
Augustine is primarily concerned with rhetoric in dealing with ecclesiastical oratory.
Augustine's emphasis of prayer
- One ought to pray before speaking
- One should pray in labor to make himself understood
- One ought to pray to God to put a good speech upon one's lips
Role of the Holy Spirit
use Pathos & Ethos
Augustine's usage ethos as the life
- live in a way that cannot be condemned
- the life of the speaker is most persuasive
- How can one express in words what they do not do in deeds?
- An ecclesiastic orator must have a godly life
Augustine is the first to advocate the usage of vernacular. It doesn't matter how eloquent you are if the audience can't understand you.
Important ideas:
- Clarity, not victory is the goal of rhetoric
- Using Scripture as proof
- teaching emphasis
- 3 Styles in the same speech
In the process of learning rhetoric, Augustine follows Cicero's method of imitation, theory and practice.
The goal of rhetoric is the glorification of God.
(I am so BoReDeDeD!)
Tuesday, January 23, 2007
Augustine on Rhetoric
(Originally written January 23, 2007 in Book 12)
Augustine (354 - 430 AD)
- Bishop of Hippo
On Christian Doctrine
- Humans need to understand signs
- Talent to do interpretation
- Ecclesiastical or sacred orator
- Orator does not convert: oration comes post-conversion
- Encouraged the use of vernacular to reach audiences
Definition - the means of discovering what the thought may be and the means of expressing what the thought is
Purpose - discover, instruct, please, persuade
Epistemology - the Word and thought are the same thing in Jesus
3 Styles of speaking:
Instructing - Simple style
Pleasing - Middle style (intellectually pleased with God's law)
Moving - Grand (DO the truth)
Augustine (354 - 430 AD)
- Bishop of Hippo
On Christian Doctrine
- Humans need to understand signs
- Talent to do interpretation
- Ecclesiastical or sacred orator
- Orator does not convert: oration comes post-conversion
- Encouraged the use of vernacular to reach audiences
Definition - the means of discovering what the thought may be and the means of expressing what the thought is
Purpose - discover, instruct, please, persuade
Epistemology - the Word and thought are the same thing in Jesus
3 Styles of speaking:
Instructing - Simple style
Pleasing - Middle style (intellectually pleased with God's law)
Moving - Grand (DO the truth)
Friday, January 19, 2007
Class notes on Quintilian
(Originally written January 19, 2007 in Book 12)
Class Notes
Quintilian
Endowed chair of Rhetoric in 71 AD by the emperor
Believed that both the father and the mother are the primary teachers of the children. Must speak correctly and proper to one's own children and model lifelong learning.
Age 7 - Learn language
Age 14 - Grammar school
Then, rhetorical training.
Quintilian's principles for teaching (educational principles)
- Different ages ought to be corrected in different ways (more individualized)
- Caution against too much praise so it seems too false
- We imitate those we like, teacher has to be liked/respected so as to encourage imitation
- Teacher should have feeling of parent toward pupils (implies moral guidance)
- Avoid being so free of fault that you are free of merit
- Teacher need to "stoop" to teaching the details, must have the ability to give instruction in small matters even if the teacher has obtained great things
- Teacher ought to have a balance between being rough in correction and praise, a good teacher gives reasons why for correction
- don't expect perfection of style, but prefer exuberance and invention, not demanding perfection when it is unreasonable
- best teachers can teach the early things
- tenderness of teacher
- morals of teacher and classroom must first be established
- teachers ought to give exacting tasks, not long ones
- Don't let the students praise each other too much
- No mixed cohort
- Teacher shouldn't be superfluous in praising students
- Best teachers can teach the simple things
- Perspicuity - chief virtue of eloquence: less able people try to puff up and are compensating for some deficiency
- One should lower one's self to the pupil's level
- Consistency in teaching
Quintilian's caring for the students was unprecedented and many centuries following no one showed this much care investing in students.
Quintilian's definition of rhetoric/rhetorician:
- A good man speaking well, no man can be an orator if he is not a good man
- the art of oratory includes many other subjects (arts)
- a perfect orator must have all the excellences of character
- rhetoric includes the art (theory), artist and the speech
- Rhetoric is the science of speaking well
- Rhetoric is the action, not the result of the speech
Definition of rhetoric according to Quintilian: Art (set of principles), Artist (moral character) Speech (best possible, but not necessarily successful)
Rhetoric is the culmination of theory, speaker, and speech in action producing from the moral character and ability of the speaker, the best possible, but not successful by necessity, speech.
Rhetorical education includes:
I. Invention
- Arrangement
II. Eloquence
- Memory
- Delivery
III. Philosophical knowledge
IV. Historical knowledge
Stasis
Definition is vital to the proof used
"By settling what a thing is we have come near to determining its identity, for our purpose is to produce a definition that is applicable to our case" (221).
Reading and Writing Principles:
- Go over reading with care (when it well)
- Critical function guides reading, not ethos or pathos
- Read through from cover to cover, multiple times
- Memorize from your written paper
- Research the facts of the case
- Read only the best authors
- Don't assume that the author is perfect
- Poetry is good to read (Roman/Greek poetry: moral and philosophical in nature)
- Read history
- Read philosophy
Memory (Principles of)
- Importance of Memory
- Knowing the laws
- Knowing own speech
- Knowing opponents' words
- Writing aids memory. Memory aids association of place helps in memory
- Symbols
- Learning in pieces
- Practice and industry
- Dividing and ordering
Class Notes
Quintilian
Endowed chair of Rhetoric in 71 AD by the emperor
Believed that both the father and the mother are the primary teachers of the children. Must speak correctly and proper to one's own children and model lifelong learning.
Age 7 - Learn language
Age 14 - Grammar school
Then, rhetorical training.
Quintilian's principles for teaching (educational principles)
- Different ages ought to be corrected in different ways (more individualized)
- Caution against too much praise so it seems too false
- We imitate those we like, teacher has to be liked/respected so as to encourage imitation
- Teacher should have feeling of parent toward pupils (implies moral guidance)
- Avoid being so free of fault that you are free of merit
- Teacher need to "stoop" to teaching the details, must have the ability to give instruction in small matters even if the teacher has obtained great things
- Teacher ought to have a balance between being rough in correction and praise, a good teacher gives reasons why for correction
- don't expect perfection of style, but prefer exuberance and invention, not demanding perfection when it is unreasonable
- best teachers can teach the early things
- tenderness of teacher
- morals of teacher and classroom must first be established
- teachers ought to give exacting tasks, not long ones
- Don't let the students praise each other too much
- No mixed cohort
- Teacher shouldn't be superfluous in praising students
- Best teachers can teach the simple things
- Perspicuity - chief virtue of eloquence: less able people try to puff up and are compensating for some deficiency
- One should lower one's self to the pupil's level
- Consistency in teaching
Quintilian's caring for the students was unprecedented and many centuries following no one showed this much care investing in students.
Quintilian's definition of rhetoric/rhetorician:
- A good man speaking well, no man can be an orator if he is not a good man
- the art of oratory includes many other subjects (arts)
- a perfect orator must have all the excellences of character
- rhetoric includes the art (theory), artist and the speech
- Rhetoric is the science of speaking well
- Rhetoric is the action, not the result of the speech
Definition of rhetoric according to Quintilian: Art (set of principles), Artist (moral character) Speech (best possible, but not necessarily successful)
Rhetoric is the culmination of theory, speaker, and speech in action producing from the moral character and ability of the speaker, the best possible, but not successful by necessity, speech.
Rhetorical education includes:
I. Invention
- Arrangement
II. Eloquence
- Memory
- Delivery
III. Philosophical knowledge
IV. Historical knowledge
Stasis
Definition is vital to the proof used
"By settling what a thing is we have come near to determining its identity, for our purpose is to produce a definition that is applicable to our case" (221).
Reading and Writing Principles:
- Go over reading with care (when it well)
- Critical function guides reading, not ethos or pathos
- Read through from cover to cover, multiple times
- Memorize from your written paper
- Research the facts of the case
- Read only the best authors
- Don't assume that the author is perfect
- Poetry is good to read (Roman/Greek poetry: moral and philosophical in nature)
- Read history
- Read philosophy
Memory (Principles of)
- Importance of Memory
- Knowing the laws
- Knowing own speech
- Knowing opponents' words
- Writing aids memory. Memory aids association of place helps in memory
- Symbols
- Learning in pieces
- Practice and industry
- Dividing and ordering
Roman Rhetoric Review
(Originally written January 19, 2007 in Book 12)
I. Cicero's definition of rhetoric - all rhetoric is argument, any discussion of matters pertaining to citizenship (duty, moral character is implied)
II. Quintilian's definition of rhetoric: a good man speaking well, art (theory) guided by principles, artist guided by moral character and speech.
III. Cicero's Four Stages:
1) Fact
2) Definition
3) Qualitative
4) Translative
IV. Facilities the speaker needs according to the author of Rhetorica ad Herennium? The canon of rhetoric: invention, arrangement, style, delivery and memory.
V. What are the three things necessary for the education of a orator according to the author of Rhetorica ad Herennium?
1) Theory
2) Imitation
3) Proactive
VI. What are Cicero's requirements for an orator? Must be a citizen, must possess good tone and delivery; possess great dignity, pleasantry, and wit; must be fertile in argument and analogies; must know stasis theory; must instruct listeners, give him pleasure and stir his emotions.
VII. What are Quintilian's requirements of an orator? Must be a good man, must be trained, must possess exceptional gift of speech, must possess a sort of phronesis to make wise decisions on a daily basis; must possess the virtues of courage, justice and self-control; must possess strong memory.
VIII. Cicero's four ways of arguing assumptive issues:
1) Confession and avoidance
2) Shifting the charge
3) Retort of accusation
4) Comparison
IX. Cicero's three styles of oration:
1) Dignified
2) Middle
3) Plain
X. Quintilian's primary stasis point - definition
XI. Significant contributions
A. Cicero
- Stasis theory (outlined it thoroughly)
- Rhetoric as argument
- Critiqued other rhetorician's style
- 3 levels of style
B. Quintilian
- Modifies pupil/teacher relationship
- Exhaustive philosophy of rhetorical education
- treatment of reading and writing
- treatment of memory
I. Cicero's definition of rhetoric - all rhetoric is argument, any discussion of matters pertaining to citizenship (duty, moral character is implied)
II. Quintilian's definition of rhetoric: a good man speaking well, art (theory) guided by principles, artist guided by moral character and speech.
III. Cicero's Four Stages:
1) Fact
2) Definition
3) Qualitative
4) Translative
IV. Facilities the speaker needs according to the author of Rhetorica ad Herennium? The canon of rhetoric: invention, arrangement, style, delivery and memory.
V. What are the three things necessary for the education of a orator according to the author of Rhetorica ad Herennium?
1) Theory
2) Imitation
3) Proactive
VI. What are Cicero's requirements for an orator? Must be a citizen, must possess good tone and delivery; possess great dignity, pleasantry, and wit; must be fertile in argument and analogies; must know stasis theory; must instruct listeners, give him pleasure and stir his emotions.
VII. What are Quintilian's requirements of an orator? Must be a good man, must be trained, must possess exceptional gift of speech, must possess a sort of phronesis to make wise decisions on a daily basis; must possess the virtues of courage, justice and self-control; must possess strong memory.
VIII. Cicero's four ways of arguing assumptive issues:
1) Confession and avoidance
2) Shifting the charge
3) Retort of accusation
4) Comparison
IX. Cicero's three styles of oration:
1) Dignified
2) Middle
3) Plain
X. Quintilian's primary stasis point - definition
XI. Significant contributions
A. Cicero
- Stasis theory (outlined it thoroughly)
- Rhetoric as argument
- Critiqued other rhetorician's style
- 3 levels of style
B. Quintilian
- Modifies pupil/teacher relationship
- Exhaustive philosophy of rhetorical education
- treatment of reading and writing
- treatment of memory
Thursday, January 18, 2007
Introduction to De Officiis
(Originally written January 18, 2007 in Book 8)
So, I escaped logic, surviving it with a "C". But, that was last semester. Now, it is J-Term and "Classical Rhetoric". I'm working on researching a topic for a paper on Roman rhetoric and have hit a brick wall. I liked my essay on episteme and doxa in Georgian rhetoric, but I'm tired of dealing with knowledge and epistemology. I am going to read Cicero's On Duties.
On Duties
Cicero
translated by M.T. Griffin and E.M. Atkins
Cambridge University Press: NY, NY. 2004.
Introduction
So, I escaped logic, surviving it with a "C". But, that was last semester. Now, it is J-Term and "Classical Rhetoric". I'm working on researching a topic for a paper on Roman rhetoric and have hit a brick wall. I liked my essay on episteme and doxa in Georgian rhetoric, but I'm tired of dealing with knowledge and epistemology. I am going to read Cicero's On Duties.
On Duties
Cicero
translated by M.T. Griffin and E.M. Atkins
Cambridge University Press: NY, NY. 2004.
Introduction
- Marcus Tullius Cicero was born in 106 B.C.
- He was a 'new man', the first of his family to hold public office.
- He was from Arpinum
- Cicero and his brother, Quintus, were taught by L. Licinius Crassus
- He studied under the Stoic Diodotus and the head of the Academy, Philo of Larissa.
- He then traveled to Greece to study. There he encountered the philosophers Antiochus of Escalon and the Stoic polymath, Posidonius
- Cicero adhered to Philo of Larissa's skeptical teaching: "rejecting the possibility of certain knowledge and asserting his right to adopt what position seemed most persuasive on any occasion" (x)
- His first public office was quaestor (financial officer) of Sicily.
- He rose to consul in 63 B.C. at the age of 43.
- The political shift to militarism took some of his power and he began to write
- "Cicero had once suggested to his brother that his consulship was the realization of Plato's dream of the philosopher ruler" (xi).
- Cicero sided with Pompey in the last days of the Republic, but was pardoned by Caesar.
- He was one of the first to attempt philosophy in Latin.
The Political Context of De Officiis
Written post-assassination of Caesar, Cicero attempts to justify tyrannicide. He believed Caesar wanted tyrannical power, was bent on revolutionary social policy, was economically irresponsible and was distrusting of his clemency.
He then turned on Antony, whom he believed ought to have been assassinated with Caesar.
Above all, he wanted to restore/uphold the Republic.
His chastising of Antony in the Philippic Orations led to his downfall.
Class notes on Cicero (Rhetoric)
(Originally written January 18, 2007 in Book 12)
Class notes
The main purpose of rhetoric is to discuss matters of citizenship - Rhetorica ad Herennium
Rhetorica ad Herennium is the first defining of the canon of Rhetoric: invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery. (The first text still extant)
Means to acquiring rhetorical canon:
1) Theory
2) Imitation
3) Practice
Cicero: Stasis Theory
I. Fact
II. Definition
A. Nature or character of act
III. Qualitative
A. Absolute
B. Assumptive
1. Confession and avoidance
a. Purgation (when deed is acknowledged)
b. But not intent
i. Ignorance
ii. Accident
iii. Necessity
c. Deprecation - when intent is acknowledged but pardon is sought
2. Shifting the charge - magnify the culpability of the person, blame is shifted
a. Whose fault?
b. Good Will of Defendant
3. Retort
a. justified in doing it.
b. transfer
4. Comparison
a. separate the crime from the act
b. use of topics: intent, time, reason and magnitude
IV. Translative
Cicero is the first to pen rhetoric as argument. (All rhetoric is argument).
Cicero used argument much more broadly than the Greeks.
The orator ought to effect:
1) Instruct the listener
2) Give the listener pleasure
3) Stir the emotions of the listener
Three kinds of style:
1) Dignified
2) Middle
3) Plain
Class notes
The main purpose of rhetoric is to discuss matters of citizenship - Rhetorica ad Herennium
Rhetorica ad Herennium is the first defining of the canon of Rhetoric: invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery. (The first text still extant)
Means to acquiring rhetorical canon:
1) Theory
2) Imitation
3) Practice
Cicero: Stasis Theory
I. Fact
II. Definition
A. Nature or character of act
III. Qualitative
A. Absolute
B. Assumptive
1. Confession and avoidance
a. Purgation (when deed is acknowledged)
b. But not intent
i. Ignorance
ii. Accident
iii. Necessity
c. Deprecation - when intent is acknowledged but pardon is sought
2. Shifting the charge - magnify the culpability of the person, blame is shifted
a. Whose fault?
b. Good Will of Defendant
3. Retort
a. justified in doing it.
b. transfer
4. Comparison
a. separate the crime from the act
b. use of topics: intent, time, reason and magnitude
IV. Translative
Cicero is the first to pen rhetoric as argument. (All rhetoric is argument).
Cicero used argument much more broadly than the Greeks.
The orator ought to effect:
1) Instruct the listener
2) Give the listener pleasure
3) Stir the emotions of the listener
Three kinds of style:
1) Dignified
2) Middle
3) Plain
Wednesday, January 17, 2007
Notes on Roman Rhetoric
(Originally written January 17, 2007)
Readings from Classical Rhetoric
Edited by: Patricia P. Matsen, Philip Rollingen, Marion Sousa
pp 161-167
Greco-Roman Rhetoric
The Hellenistic culture had a profound effect upon the Roman world.
Greek education, including rhetoric was incorporated into Roman life. After being tutored privately, middle class and wealthy youths went to pursue advanced rhetoric education at either Athens, Rhodes or Pergamum.
Rhetoric ad Herennium
author: unknown
Overview of Rhetoric
Anything of speaking is useless without continuous practice.
"The task of the public speaker is to discuss capably these matters which law and custom have fixed for the uses of citizenship, and to secure as far as possible the agreement of his hearers" (16).
Three types of speech:
1) Epideictic - praise or blame
2) Deliberative - policy making
3) Judicial - legal controversies
A speaker should possess the faculties of:
1) Invention - devising of matter
2) Arrangement - ordering of the matter
3) Style - adaptation of words
4) Memory - firm retention of the matter, words and arrangement
5) Delivery - graceful regulation of voice, countenance and gesture
The faculties needed are acquired by:
1) Theory - definite method and system of speaking
2) Imitation
3) Practice - exercise
Introductions
Introductions must match type of speech.
Two kinds of introductions:
1) The Direct Opening (Greek: Prooimion)
2) The subtle Approach (Ephodos)
The Direct Opening prepares the hearer to attend to the speech.
If the subject matter of the speech is controversial, the Direct opening will be based on good-will so that "the discreditable part of the cause cannot be prejudicial to us" (164).
There are four ways to make the hearer well-disposed
1) Discussing one's own person
2) Discussing the person of one's adversaries
3) Discussing the person of one's hearers
4) Discussing the facts themselves
There are three occasions when one cannot use the Direct Opening:
1) When the cause is discreditable
2) When the subject alienates the hearer from the speaker
3) When the hearer has become wearied by listening to the previous speakers
If the subject has a discreditable character make the introduction with the following points:
1) The agent, not the action, ought to be considered
2) When the agent/speaker is displeased with the acts of one's opponents
If the hearers are fatigued, one should open with something that may provoke laughter
Conclusions
Conclusions (Greek: Epilogoi) are tripartite
1) Summing up
2) Amplification
3) Appeal to Pity
A conclusion can be used in four places:
1) At the end of the direct opening
2) after the statement of facts
3) after the strongest argument
4) at the conclusion of the speech
Summing up includes recalling of the main points briefly
Amplification is the principle of using common places to stir the hearers.
The first common place is taken from authority.
The second common place is used when we consider who are affected by these acts.
The third common place is asking what would happen if the same indulgence should be granted to all culprits.
The fourth common place is indulging the man
The fifth common place is one judgment is pronounced otherwise than as we urge.
The sixth common place we show that the act was done with premeditation.
The seventh common place is to show it as a crime.
The eighth common place is to show that a common crime is unique.
The ninth common place consists of a comparison of wrongs.
The tenth common place is a sharp examination.
Readings from Classical Rhetoric
Edited by: Patricia P. Matsen, Philip Rollingen, Marion Sousa
pp 161-167
Greco-Roman Rhetoric
The Hellenistic culture had a profound effect upon the Roman world.
Greek education, including rhetoric was incorporated into Roman life. After being tutored privately, middle class and wealthy youths went to pursue advanced rhetoric education at either Athens, Rhodes or Pergamum.
Rhetoric ad Herennium
author: unknown
Overview of Rhetoric
Anything of speaking is useless without continuous practice.
"The task of the public speaker is to discuss capably these matters which law and custom have fixed for the uses of citizenship, and to secure as far as possible the agreement of his hearers" (16).
Three types of speech:
1) Epideictic - praise or blame
2) Deliberative - policy making
3) Judicial - legal controversies
A speaker should possess the faculties of:
1) Invention - devising of matter
2) Arrangement - ordering of the matter
3) Style - adaptation of words
4) Memory - firm retention of the matter, words and arrangement
5) Delivery - graceful regulation of voice, countenance and gesture
The faculties needed are acquired by:
1) Theory - definite method and system of speaking
2) Imitation
3) Practice - exercise
Introductions
Introductions must match type of speech.
Two kinds of introductions:
1) The Direct Opening (Greek: Prooimion)
2) The subtle Approach (Ephodos)
The Direct Opening prepares the hearer to attend to the speech.
If the subject matter of the speech is controversial, the Direct opening will be based on good-will so that "the discreditable part of the cause cannot be prejudicial to us" (164).
There are four ways to make the hearer well-disposed
1) Discussing one's own person
2) Discussing the person of one's adversaries
3) Discussing the person of one's hearers
4) Discussing the facts themselves
There are three occasions when one cannot use the Direct Opening:
1) When the cause is discreditable
2) When the subject alienates the hearer from the speaker
3) When the hearer has become wearied by listening to the previous speakers
If the subject has a discreditable character make the introduction with the following points:
1) The agent, not the action, ought to be considered
2) When the agent/speaker is displeased with the acts of one's opponents
If the hearers are fatigued, one should open with something that may provoke laughter
Conclusions
Conclusions (Greek: Epilogoi) are tripartite
1) Summing up
2) Amplification
3) Appeal to Pity
A conclusion can be used in four places:
1) At the end of the direct opening
2) after the statement of facts
3) after the strongest argument
4) at the conclusion of the speech
Summing up includes recalling of the main points briefly
Amplification is the principle of using common places to stir the hearers.
The first common place is taken from authority.
The second common place is used when we consider who are affected by these acts.
The third common place is asking what would happen if the same indulgence should be granted to all culprits.
The fourth common place is indulging the man
The fifth common place is one judgment is pronounced otherwise than as we urge.
The sixth common place we show that the act was done with premeditation.
The seventh common place is to show it as a crime.
The eighth common place is to show that a common crime is unique.
The ninth common place consists of a comparison of wrongs.
The tenth common place is a sharp examination.
Cicero and Rhetoric
(Originally written January 17, 2007 in Book 12)
Roman Rhetoric
Rhetoric enabled upper class individuals to rise socially and gain influence (ethos was key).
Roman sense of character alters rhetoric.
Cicero is unique - not from a family with political connections - a "new man" who used rhetoric to influence people.
Education
- Primary means of communication was still oral
- Based on Isocrates
Cicero
106-43 BC
-Saw philosophy as integrally tied to rhetoric
-Ideas changed over time
-Alters meaning of "kairos" to propriety
-Built on Stoicism
-Patriotic
De Inventione
Stasis Theory
- Fact/conjectural
- Quality/Definition
- Nature of the act/ qualitative
- Legal process/ translative
4 Strands of Stasis
- Fact - if he did do it
- Quantity - How much was done
- Quality - what was the level of action
- Justice - what is the reasonable penalty
- Equitability - what are the customs of the area
Stasis: at what point the argument turns
Oratoryian attractive but difficult study
- Vast knowledge
- Distinctive style
- Understand mental emotions
- Humor
- Wit
- Culture
- Quickness in attack, defense on attack
- Delicate charm
- Memory
"Excellence in speaking cannot be made manifest unless the speaker fully comprehends the matter he speaks about" (296)
- Consumate knowledge
Orators must have:
- Subtlety of the logician
- Thoughts of the philosopher
- Diction of the poet
- Memory of the lawyer
5 Divisions of necessary skills
1) Find what to stay
2) Use order and understand appropriate weight
3) Memory
4)
5)
Relation of oratory to philosophy
- Both require wealth, free time and intellect
- Both have the power of molding men's minds
- We must understand humanity to practice oratory
Divisions of Rhetoric
1) Invention
2) Arrangement
3) Expression
4) Memory and Delivery
Educational Theory
Aim of education: highly educated young men trained in eloquence
Method:
1) Read and listen
2) Learn Proofs
Talent is most important, but training is necessary
Romans placed more emphasis on training than the Greeks
Purpose of Rhetoric
Def. - a science using language and arguments to convince
Oration: 6 Parts - exordium, narration, partition, confirmation, refutation, peroratio
Power of rhetoric - he believed that the power of speech, along with natural ability, could shape the character and shape of society
Purpose: convince audience that he is who he would like them to believe he is and that his audience is touched in a way that moves them to accept his words
Educational Program
1) Grammar School
2) Logic School
3) Rhetoric school
Progymnasmata
- Narrative
- action, agent, time, place, manner, cause
- Description
Time: length, movement,recurrence
Action: motion, direction, velocity, force
- Fable
Retelling of a story,flat characters that personify virtues and vices
- Proverb
- Anecdote
- Refutation/confirmation
- Common place
- Praising and blaming
- Comparison
- Speech in character
- Thesis
- For and against laws
Roman Rhetoric
Rhetoric enabled upper class individuals to rise socially and gain influence (ethos was key).
Roman sense of character alters rhetoric.
Cicero is unique - not from a family with political connections - a "new man" who used rhetoric to influence people.
Education
- Primary means of communication was still oral
- Based on Isocrates
Cicero
106-43 BC
-Saw philosophy as integrally tied to rhetoric
-Ideas changed over time
-Alters meaning of "kairos" to propriety
-Built on Stoicism
-Patriotic
De Inventione
Stasis Theory
- Fact/conjectural
- Quality/Definition
- Nature of the act/ qualitative
- Legal process/ translative
4 Strands of Stasis
- Fact - if he did do it
- Quantity - How much was done
- Quality - what was the level of action
- Justice - what is the reasonable penalty
- Equitability - what are the customs of the area
Stasis: at what point the argument turns
Oratoryian attractive but difficult study
- Vast knowledge
- Distinctive style
- Understand mental emotions
- Humor
- Wit
- Culture
- Quickness in attack, defense on attack
- Delicate charm
- Memory
"Excellence in speaking cannot be made manifest unless the speaker fully comprehends the matter he speaks about" (296)
- Consumate knowledge
Orators must have:
- Subtlety of the logician
- Thoughts of the philosopher
- Diction of the poet
- Memory of the lawyer
5 Divisions of necessary skills
1) Find what to stay
2) Use order and understand appropriate weight
3) Memory
4)
5)
Relation of oratory to philosophy
- Both require wealth, free time and intellect
- Both have the power of molding men's minds
- We must understand humanity to practice oratory
Divisions of Rhetoric
1) Invention
2) Arrangement
3) Expression
4) Memory and Delivery
Educational Theory
Aim of education: highly educated young men trained in eloquence
Method:
1) Read and listen
2) Learn Proofs
Talent is most important, but training is necessary
Romans placed more emphasis on training than the Greeks
Purpose of Rhetoric
Def. - a science using language and arguments to convince
Oration: 6 Parts - exordium, narration, partition, confirmation, refutation, peroratio
Power of rhetoric - he believed that the power of speech, along with natural ability, could shape the character and shape of society
Purpose: convince audience that he is who he would like them to believe he is and that his audience is touched in a way that moves them to accept his words
Educational Program
1) Grammar School
2) Logic School
3) Rhetoric school
Progymnasmata
- Narrative
- action, agent, time, place, manner, cause
- Description
Time: length, movement,recurrence
Action: motion, direction, velocity, force
- Fable
Retelling of a story,flat characters that personify virtues and vices
- Proverb
- Anecdote
- Refutation/confirmation
- Common place
- Praising and blaming
- Comparison
- Speech in character
- Thesis
- For and against laws
Tuesday, January 16, 2007
Philosophy of Religion - Hick: Ch. 3 (A)
(Originally written January 16, 2007 in Book 7)
Philosophy of Religion
John Hick
Chapter 3 - The Grounds for Disbelief in God
The responsible skeptic is not concerned with denying that religious experiences happen. They only aim to show that these experiences can be explained in naturalistic terms.
The Sociological Theory of Religion
-Developed mainly by 20th century French sociologists, particularly Emile Durkheim. It states that the gods people worship are "imaginary beings unconsciously fabricated by society as instruments whereby society exercises control over the thoughts and behavior of the individual" (Hick, 31).
Linehan: what about house gods or personal gods? How is an individual or an individual family's god molded by society to control its behavior?
A holy, all-powerful God that demands monotheistic worship is a reflection of a society's absolute claim of loyalty on its members.
The human animal has created God in order to preserve its own social existence.
H. H. Farmer offered the most comprehensive critique of this theory:
1. "If the call of God is only society imposing upon its members forms of conduct that are in the interest of that society, what is the origin of the obligation to be concerned equally for all humanity?" (Hick, 33).
2. The sociological theory does not account for the ethical progress or moral creativity of the prophetic mind. If there is no God, then how do the prophets come to new, more far-reaching claims of morality?
3. What about when men of God go against society? If God is society and men of God go against it, aren't the men of God going against God?
Philosophy of Religion
John Hick
Chapter 3 - The Grounds for Disbelief in God
The responsible skeptic is not concerned with denying that religious experiences happen. They only aim to show that these experiences can be explained in naturalistic terms.
The Sociological Theory of Religion
-Developed mainly by 20th century French sociologists, particularly Emile Durkheim. It states that the gods people worship are "imaginary beings unconsciously fabricated by society as instruments whereby society exercises control over the thoughts and behavior of the individual" (Hick, 31).
Linehan: what about house gods or personal gods? How is an individual or an individual family's god molded by society to control its behavior?
A holy, all-powerful God that demands monotheistic worship is a reflection of a society's absolute claim of loyalty on its members.
The human animal has created God in order to preserve its own social existence.
H. H. Farmer offered the most comprehensive critique of this theory:
1. "If the call of God is only society imposing upon its members forms of conduct that are in the interest of that society, what is the origin of the obligation to be concerned equally for all humanity?" (Hick, 33).
2. The sociological theory does not account for the ethical progress or moral creativity of the prophetic mind. If there is no God, then how do the prophets come to new, more far-reaching claims of morality?
3. What about when men of God go against society? If God is society and men of God go against it, aren't the men of God going against God?
Philosophy of Religion - Hick: Ch. 2 (C)
(Originally written January 16, 2007 in Book 7)
Philosophy of Religion
John Hick
Ch. 2 (continued)
Theism and Probability
Theism is presented as the most probable world-view/metaphysical system by focusing on the probability of the sum of all existence being caused. This stance takes into account man's moral and religious experience.
There are two main theories of probability:
1) Frequency theory
2) Reasonableness of belief theory
Frequency theory cannot be used in theistic probability.
The reasonableness of belief theory states that X is more probable than Y when they are both considered in relation to a common body of evidence.
The problem with any reasonableness of belief theory is that it is highly subjective and if we apply it to the Universe (as the sum of all existence) we have nothing else to judge it against.
One way of avoiding these problems is to use the reasonableness of belief theory as an 'alogical' format. In an 'alogical' format probability we are using common-sense judgment, not mathematical statistics. Thus, 'alogically' the evidence supporting a designed universe is more weighty than a universe randomly caused. This way however begs the question.
The Moral Argument
"The moral argument, in its various forms, claims that ethical experience, an particularly one's sense of an inalienable obligation to fellow human beings, presupposes the reality of God as in some way the source and ground of this obligation" (Hick, 26).
First Form
Basically this form states that moral values are incapable of being explained through naturalistic terms. This form begs the question.
Second Form
Kant argues that immorality and the existence of God are 'postulates' of the moral life. Basically this sets that moral values point to an existence of God. This argument is not a strict proof for the existence of God.
The Argument from Special Events and Experiences
Miracles and answered prayers can be grounds for a belief in the existence of God.
David Hume argues that a person who has not witnessed the miracle has two options for not taking these as grounds for the existence of God:
1) They can disbelieve that they happened
2) They can explain the 'miracle' in natural terms
Parapsychology has expanded the natural interpretations of 'miracles' in three ways:
1) Extrasensory perception (telepathy)
2) An awareness of future of events (precognition)
3) The power of the mind to influence directly the movements of matter beyond the boundaries of one's own body (psychokinesis)
Private mystical experiences can be grounds for belief in God. But private experiences are always open to be doubted by the skeptic.
Philosophy of Religion
John Hick
Ch. 2 (continued)
Theism and Probability
Theism is presented as the most probable world-view/metaphysical system by focusing on the probability of the sum of all existence being caused. This stance takes into account man's moral and religious experience.
There are two main theories of probability:
1) Frequency theory
2) Reasonableness of belief theory
Frequency theory cannot be used in theistic probability.
The reasonableness of belief theory states that X is more probable than Y when they are both considered in relation to a common body of evidence.
The problem with any reasonableness of belief theory is that it is highly subjective and if we apply it to the Universe (as the sum of all existence) we have nothing else to judge it against.
One way of avoiding these problems is to use the reasonableness of belief theory as an 'alogical' format. In an 'alogical' format probability we are using common-sense judgment, not mathematical statistics. Thus, 'alogically' the evidence supporting a designed universe is more weighty than a universe randomly caused. This way however begs the question.
The Moral Argument
"The moral argument, in its various forms, claims that ethical experience, an particularly one's sense of an inalienable obligation to fellow human beings, presupposes the reality of God as in some way the source and ground of this obligation" (Hick, 26).
First Form
Basically this form states that moral values are incapable of being explained through naturalistic terms. This form begs the question.
Second Form
Kant argues that immorality and the existence of God are 'postulates' of the moral life. Basically this sets that moral values point to an existence of God. This argument is not a strict proof for the existence of God.
The Argument from Special Events and Experiences
Miracles and answered prayers can be grounds for a belief in the existence of God.
David Hume argues that a person who has not witnessed the miracle has two options for not taking these as grounds for the existence of God:
1) They can disbelieve that they happened
2) They can explain the 'miracle' in natural terms
Parapsychology has expanded the natural interpretations of 'miracles' in three ways:
1) Extrasensory perception (telepathy)
2) An awareness of future of events (precognition)
3) The power of the mind to influence directly the movements of matter beyond the boundaries of one's own body (psychokinesis)
Private mystical experiences can be grounds for belief in God. But private experiences are always open to be doubted by the skeptic.
Sunday, January 14, 2007
Philosophy of Religion - Hick: Ch. 2 (B)
(Originally written January 14, 2007 in Book 7)
Philosophy of Religion
John Hick
Ch. 2 (continued)
Criticisms of the Argument
Gaunilo, a French monk posited the first criticism of the ontological argument. He sets up the (supposedly) parallel ontological argument for the most perfect island argument. He states that if we can conceive of the most perfect island it must exist, because 'most perfect' implies existence.
Anselm's response is that God's existence alone has this quality because of God's existence being the only necessary existence. Thus, Anselm's argument, in its second form stands up to the criticism.
Rene Descartes reformulated the ontological argument. Rene Descartes argues that existence is a predicate (attribute or property). He argues that existence is a necessary property of a supremely perfect being. "God without existence would not be God" (Hick, 18).
Immanuel Kant challenged the Cartesian version of the ontological argument. Kant stated that if there is a supremely perfect being it must exist, but that the ontological argument proves only that if God exists, existence is an attribute of his supreme perfection. Kant denied that existence is really an attribute of something.
Bertrand Russell claims that the word 'exists' functions as a grammatical predicate, but not a logical one.
If existence is not a predicate, it cannot be a defining predicate of God.
"A definition of God describes one's concept of God but cannot prove the actual existence of any such being" (Hick, 19-20).
The First-Cause and Cosmological Arguments:
Thomas Aquinas offered five proofs for the existence of God.
The ontological argument focuses on the idea or concept of God; Thomistic proofs start from a general feature of the world and argues that this feature could not exist without the existence of a supreme being.
Thomas' second proof is the first-cause argument: everything that happens has a cause, this cause has a cause, thus there must be an infinite regress of causes or a first cause. An infinite regress is absurd and thus, God exists necessarily.
The difficulty of this lies in the denial of an infinite regress.
CL - If one can prove that infinitude is merely an adjective and not a property it would be possible to show that infinitude is merely a thing which people have created in their minds to clarify and thus it has no substance or reality, apart from a human mind.
Two major difficulties:
1) The argument makes reality a dilemma: either there is a first cause or the universe is unintelligible. But the argument does not show why we should pick either.
2) The argument rests upon casualty, which is challengeable.
Aquinas' third argument, the cosmological argument states: everything in the world is contingent, but if everything that existed, existent contingently, then there would be a time when nothing existed and if nothing existed,nothing could have come into existence. Thus, there must be necessary being: God.
A major criticism of this is the notion of 'necessary being' is unintelligible. It is a misuse of words to call a being necessary because only propositions can be logically necessary.
This objection is groundless because in theological arguments (especially Anselm and Aquinas) 'necessary' is not seen as logically necessary, but as factually necessary. This factual necessity is equivalent to 'asceity' or self-existence.
"The idea of God's necessary being should not be equated with the view that 'God exists' is a logically necessary truth" (Hick, 23).
One last objection still lies in wait for the cosmological argument. The argument rests on the dilemma that either there is a necessary being or the universe is unintelligible. The universe as being unintelligible has not been ruled out and remains the skeptic's position.
The Design (or Teleological) Argument.
Plato posited this argument in Timaeus. St. Thomas Aquinas used it in one of his five proofs.
William Paley (1743-1805) posited one of the most famous versions of it in modern times. Basically Paley stated that the complexity and intricate nature of the universe demands a creator and rules out sheer chance. David Hume criticized Paley's position. (Despite Hume's criticism coming before Paley's book). Hume points out that any universe is bound to have the appearance of being designed. It also states that the universe is not very much like a machine, so analogies between God making a machine universe and man making a machine are weak. Lastly, he states that even if we could state that the world was designed it does not follow that the all-good, all-powerful, personal God of Christianity exists.
Philosophy of Religion
John Hick
Ch. 2 (continued)
Criticisms of the Argument
Gaunilo, a French monk posited the first criticism of the ontological argument. He sets up the (supposedly) parallel ontological argument for the most perfect island argument. He states that if we can conceive of the most perfect island it must exist, because 'most perfect' implies existence.
Anselm's response is that God's existence alone has this quality because of God's existence being the only necessary existence. Thus, Anselm's argument, in its second form stands up to the criticism.
Rene Descartes reformulated the ontological argument. Rene Descartes argues that existence is a predicate (attribute or property). He argues that existence is a necessary property of a supremely perfect being. "God without existence would not be God" (Hick, 18).
Immanuel Kant challenged the Cartesian version of the ontological argument. Kant stated that if there is a supremely perfect being it must exist, but that the ontological argument proves only that if God exists, existence is an attribute of his supreme perfection. Kant denied that existence is really an attribute of something.
Bertrand Russell claims that the word 'exists' functions as a grammatical predicate, but not a logical one.
If existence is not a predicate, it cannot be a defining predicate of God.
"A definition of God describes one's concept of God but cannot prove the actual existence of any such being" (Hick, 19-20).
The First-Cause and Cosmological Arguments:
Thomas Aquinas offered five proofs for the existence of God.
The ontological argument focuses on the idea or concept of God; Thomistic proofs start from a general feature of the world and argues that this feature could not exist without the existence of a supreme being.
Thomas' second proof is the first-cause argument: everything that happens has a cause, this cause has a cause, thus there must be an infinite regress of causes or a first cause. An infinite regress is absurd and thus, God exists necessarily.
The difficulty of this lies in the denial of an infinite regress.
CL - If one can prove that infinitude is merely an adjective and not a property it would be possible to show that infinitude is merely a thing which people have created in their minds to clarify and thus it has no substance or reality, apart from a human mind.
Two major difficulties:
1) The argument makes reality a dilemma: either there is a first cause or the universe is unintelligible. But the argument does not show why we should pick either.
2) The argument rests upon casualty, which is challengeable.
Aquinas' third argument, the cosmological argument states: everything in the world is contingent, but if everything that existed, existent contingently, then there would be a time when nothing existed and if nothing existed,nothing could have come into existence. Thus, there must be necessary being: God.
A major criticism of this is the notion of 'necessary being' is unintelligible. It is a misuse of words to call a being necessary because only propositions can be logically necessary.
This objection is groundless because in theological arguments (especially Anselm and Aquinas) 'necessary' is not seen as logically necessary, but as factually necessary. This factual necessity is equivalent to 'asceity' or self-existence.
"The idea of God's necessary being should not be equated with the view that 'God exists' is a logically necessary truth" (Hick, 23).
One last objection still lies in wait for the cosmological argument. The argument rests on the dilemma that either there is a necessary being or the universe is unintelligible. The universe as being unintelligible has not been ruled out and remains the skeptic's position.
The Design (or Teleological) Argument.
Plato posited this argument in Timaeus. St. Thomas Aquinas used it in one of his five proofs.
William Paley (1743-1805) posited one of the most famous versions of it in modern times. Basically Paley stated that the complexity and intricate nature of the universe demands a creator and rules out sheer chance. David Hume criticized Paley's position. (Despite Hume's criticism coming before Paley's book). Hume points out that any universe is bound to have the appearance of being designed. It also states that the universe is not very much like a machine, so analogies between God making a machine universe and man making a machine are weak. Lastly, he states that even if we could state that the world was designed it does not follow that the all-good, all-powerful, personal God of Christianity exists.
Thursday, January 11, 2007
Philosophy of Religion - Hick: Ch. 2 (A)
(Originally written January 11, 2007 in Book 7)
Philosophy of Religion
John Hick
Ch. 2 Grounds for belief in God
The Ontological Argument
-First developed by Anselm of Canterbury
In the Ontological argument the concept of God is "a being that which nothing greater can be conceived" (Hick, 16).
First form of the argument
Does God (as Anselm's concept) exist in the mind or in reality? Perfection in the most perfect form must exist in reality because if it only exists in the mind we can conceive of something more perfect as that it exists.
Second form of the argument
God is infinitely perfect and this is not limited in or by time. Since he is unlimited in this way he could never have come into or cease to exist. Thus, God's existence is necessary.
Philosophy of Religion
John Hick
Ch. 2 Grounds for belief in God
The Ontological Argument
-First developed by Anselm of Canterbury
In the Ontological argument the concept of God is "a being that which nothing greater can be conceived" (Hick, 16).
First form of the argument
Does God (as Anselm's concept) exist in the mind or in reality? Perfection in the most perfect form must exist in reality because if it only exists in the mind we can conceive of something more perfect as that it exists.
Second form of the argument
God is infinitely perfect and this is not limited in or by time. Since he is unlimited in this way he could never have come into or cease to exist. Thus, God's existence is necessary.
Rhetoric and Epistemology Notes 2
(Originally written January 11, 2007 in Book 12)
Article #3 - Rhetoric And Episteme: Writing About Art in the Wake of Post-Structuralism
By: Gérard Mermoz
Class Notes
Platonic Rhetoric - trying to influence the audience's souls towards truth
Georgian Rhetoric - using the magic of words
Aristotelian Rhetoric - the use of logos, pathos, and ethos in rhetoric
Isocratic Rhetoric - Using rhetoric to find knowledge and Kairos
Article #3
Rhetoric: "art of persuasive speaking or writing, language designed to persuade or impress (but perhaps insincere or exaggerated)" (498).
Mermoz uses 'rhetoric' as "various devices and processes through which meanings are constructed and communicated int he pursuit of 'truth-effects' - neither good nor bad in themselves, but instrumental in implementing 'truth-values'" (498).
Derrida, in critiquing Platonism, questions the reasons for the separation of philosophy (dialectic) and sophistic (rhetoric).
Richard Kearney: "We do not and cannot miraculously create meaning out of ourselves, we inherit meaning from others who have thought, spoken or written before us ... we recreate this meaning, according to our own projects and interpretations" (502).
Wow! I read the words, but the material flew, soaring miles above my head. It hurts.
Article #3 - Rhetoric And Episteme: Writing About Art in the Wake of Post-Structuralism
By: Gérard Mermoz
Class Notes
Platonic Rhetoric - trying to influence the audience's souls towards truth
Georgian Rhetoric - using the magic of words
Aristotelian Rhetoric - the use of logos, pathos, and ethos in rhetoric
Isocratic Rhetoric - Using rhetoric to find knowledge and Kairos
Article #3
Rhetoric: "art of persuasive speaking or writing, language designed to persuade or impress (but perhaps insincere or exaggerated)" (498).
Mermoz uses 'rhetoric' as "various devices and processes through which meanings are constructed and communicated int he pursuit of 'truth-effects' - neither good nor bad in themselves, but instrumental in implementing 'truth-values'" (498).
Derrida, in critiquing Platonism, questions the reasons for the separation of philosophy (dialectic) and sophistic (rhetoric).
Richard Kearney: "We do not and cannot miraculously create meaning out of ourselves, we inherit meaning from others who have thought, spoken or written before us ... we recreate this meaning, according to our own projects and interpretations" (502).
Wow! I read the words, but the material flew, soaring miles above my head. It hurts.
Wednesday, January 10, 2007
Rhetoric and Epistemology Notes 1
(Originally written January 10, 2007 in Book 12)
So, I have decided that I will (for my class assignment) write on Rhetoric and epistemology. I have three articles to read before I truly narrow the scope and pinpoint my exact thesis.
Article #1
Rhetoric Denuded and Redressed
Figs & Figures
John Poulakos
Steve Whitson
Quarterly Journal of Speech, August 1995
Rumors and phobias: "Although I do not understand their arguments, I am keen on dismissing them".
Curious preferences: Why do we prefer a handful of certainty to a carful of possibilities?
Reality has real problems, humanity has artificial ones.
Truth has never been found.
Knowledge is seen as disposable.
Nietzsche's definition of truth: "Mobile army of metaphors, metonyms, anthropomorphizing, a sum of human relations which were poetically and rhetorically heightened, transferred, and adored, and after long use seem solid, canonical, and binding to a nation. Truths are illusions about which it has been forgotten that they are illusions" (379).
Knowledge to the common people is something strange being reduced to something familiar. The instinct of fear demands us to know.
Epistemic potential leads to a real job and respect, which leads to the loss of evidence and humanity.
"A deficient orator is always preying on audiences" (380).
Democritus: "We know nothing authentically about anything, but each one's opines are simply what flows into him"
We shape the world (and language) in our bodily image (Somatomorphic Nominalism)
"Epistemologists will never understand that Platonism is before anything else an erotic doctrine... sensorial spiritualism at its Dionysian best" (382).
"Aesthetics is nothing else than applied physiology" (383).
Shameful poverty- Gorgias would be proud and Plato's distrust of rhetoric is vindicated by the rhetorician's abuse of language.
Another rhetoric abuse of language: "The epistemologist's point is that a definition lets one get to the heart of the matter. Let us be clear. Matter has no heart, only surfaces" (384).
The ethics of rhetoric: "Words are not one's own to do as one pleases. Respect for words and doing justice to language are two things needed for any ethics of rhetoric" (385).
Article #2
Gorgias as Philosopher of Being: Epistemic Foundationalism in Sophistic Thought
Frank D. Walters
Philosophy has long regarded rhetoric as intellectual lightweights and moral relativists.
The Sophists moved the Athenian culture from mythos to logos, from myth to logical thinking.
The sophist epistemology put speech at the center of knowing.
Sophism takes being as the province of thought and discourse.
"Sophists were more than 'mere' rhetoricians and teachers of a suspect art" (144).
Epistemic foundationalism: the unification of rhetoric and philosophy.
Being, to the Sophist, is the primary object of intellectual and moral inquiry. Being can only be known through language.
"Where there is no discourse, there is no knowledge and, correlatively, no possibility of knowing Being in any philosophically justifiable way.
Sophistic anti-logic and the problem of Being
Anti-logic: the theory of argumentation that stands in opposition to dialectics, "a community of speakers using the resources of argument to construct a commonly accepted body of truths, which can then be disseminated as knowledge" (145). Dialectics aims at one thesis being true, anti-logic posits one thesis against another in search for knowledge. Dialectics ends when knowledge is found, anti logic is a continuous and recursive process.
The price for the freedom that epistemological foundationalism is epistemological uncertainty and undecidability.
Kairos as the motive force of anti-logic.
John Poulakos' definition of sophistic rhetoric: "the art which seeks to capture in opportune moments that which is appropriate and attempts to suggest that which is possible" (146).
Gorges uses knowledge as "the experience of the irrational and the impossible" (148). "Knowledge is contradictory" (148).
Gorgias and the rhetoric of Being: The Encomium of Helen
Gorgias aims at presenting his side as the truth of the case.
Truth is shown to be language bound in Helen.
Logos and Reality: On Nature or Not-Being
Gorgias' epistemology is an irrational method of contradiction and continual self-destruction. All reality is contradictory.
"For one to know, a judgment between contradictory realities must be made, with no absolute assurance that judgment is on the side of truth" (150).
Gorgias holds that Truth is relative to the individual.
Gorgias' take on Being:
1) Being does not exist
2) If Being does exist it cannot be known
3) If Being can be known, it cannot be communicated
The logical (rather anti-logical) next step would be:
4) If Being can be communicated it cannot exist, which is absurd.
"It is possible, as Gorgias notes, to think of things which are not real, such as chariots racing on the sea. Though we think of them, they are nonetheless not real, and their non-reality is the object of our thought" (152).
But, if something is an object of our thought it exists. Existence implies reality and therefore a non-real thing derives its reality from its existence as an object of our thought.
Gorgias denies that knowledge is propositional.
So, I have decided that I will (for my class assignment) write on Rhetoric and epistemology. I have three articles to read before I truly narrow the scope and pinpoint my exact thesis.
Article #1
Rhetoric Denuded and Redressed
Figs & Figures
John Poulakos
Steve Whitson
Quarterly Journal of Speech, August 1995
Rumors and phobias: "Although I do not understand their arguments, I am keen on dismissing them".
Curious preferences: Why do we prefer a handful of certainty to a carful of possibilities?
Reality has real problems, humanity has artificial ones.
Truth has never been found.
Knowledge is seen as disposable.
Nietzsche's definition of truth: "Mobile army of metaphors, metonyms, anthropomorphizing, a sum of human relations which were poetically and rhetorically heightened, transferred, and adored, and after long use seem solid, canonical, and binding to a nation. Truths are illusions about which it has been forgotten that they are illusions" (379).
Knowledge to the common people is something strange being reduced to something familiar. The instinct of fear demands us to know.
Epistemic potential leads to a real job and respect, which leads to the loss of evidence and humanity.
"A deficient orator is always preying on audiences" (380).
Democritus: "We know nothing authentically about anything, but each one's opines are simply what flows into him"
We shape the world (and language) in our bodily image (Somatomorphic Nominalism)
"Epistemologists will never understand that Platonism is before anything else an erotic doctrine... sensorial spiritualism at its Dionysian best" (382).
"Aesthetics is nothing else than applied physiology" (383).
Shameful poverty- Gorgias would be proud and Plato's distrust of rhetoric is vindicated by the rhetorician's abuse of language.
Another rhetoric abuse of language: "The epistemologist's point is that a definition lets one get to the heart of the matter. Let us be clear. Matter has no heart, only surfaces" (384).
The ethics of rhetoric: "Words are not one's own to do as one pleases. Respect for words and doing justice to language are two things needed for any ethics of rhetoric" (385).
Article #2
Gorgias as Philosopher of Being: Epistemic Foundationalism in Sophistic Thought
Frank D. Walters
Philosophy has long regarded rhetoric as intellectual lightweights and moral relativists.
The Sophists moved the Athenian culture from mythos to logos, from myth to logical thinking.
The sophist epistemology put speech at the center of knowing.
Sophism takes being as the province of thought and discourse.
"Sophists were more than 'mere' rhetoricians and teachers of a suspect art" (144).
Epistemic foundationalism: the unification of rhetoric and philosophy.
Being, to the Sophist, is the primary object of intellectual and moral inquiry. Being can only be known through language.
"Where there is no discourse, there is no knowledge and, correlatively, no possibility of knowing Being in any philosophically justifiable way.
Sophistic anti-logic and the problem of Being
Anti-logic: the theory of argumentation that stands in opposition to dialectics, "a community of speakers using the resources of argument to construct a commonly accepted body of truths, which can then be disseminated as knowledge" (145). Dialectics aims at one thesis being true, anti-logic posits one thesis against another in search for knowledge. Dialectics ends when knowledge is found, anti logic is a continuous and recursive process.
The price for the freedom that epistemological foundationalism is epistemological uncertainty and undecidability.
Kairos as the motive force of anti-logic.
John Poulakos' definition of sophistic rhetoric: "the art which seeks to capture in opportune moments that which is appropriate and attempts to suggest that which is possible" (146).
Gorges uses knowledge as "the experience of the irrational and the impossible" (148). "Knowledge is contradictory" (148).
Gorgias and the rhetoric of Being: The Encomium of Helen
Gorgias aims at presenting his side as the truth of the case.
Truth is shown to be language bound in Helen.
Logos and Reality: On Nature or Not-Being
Gorgias' epistemology is an irrational method of contradiction and continual self-destruction. All reality is contradictory.
"For one to know, a judgment between contradictory realities must be made, with no absolute assurance that judgment is on the side of truth" (150).
Gorgias holds that Truth is relative to the individual.
Gorgias' take on Being:
1) Being does not exist
2) If Being does exist it cannot be known
3) If Being can be known, it cannot be communicated
The logical (rather anti-logical) next step would be:
4) If Being can be communicated it cannot exist, which is absurd.
"It is possible, as Gorgias notes, to think of things which are not real, such as chariots racing on the sea. Though we think of them, they are nonetheless not real, and their non-reality is the object of our thought" (152).
But, if something is an object of our thought it exists. Existence implies reality and therefore a non-real thing derives its reality from its existence as an object of our thought.
Gorgias denies that knowledge is propositional.
Gorgias, Isocrates, Plato & Aristotle Class Notes
(Originally written January 10, 2007 in Book 12)
Gorgias
Concepts:
Paideia - culture & education
Doxa - opinons: words can take you beyond the intellectual to lead to the soul
Psychologia
Isocrates (434-388 BC)
Born just before the end of the heights of Athenian culture.
Dies right after hearing that Philip of Macedonia had conquered the Greeks
Set up his school circa 393 BC
"Against the Sophists"
- Manifesto for his school
- Argued against "bad" sophists & against Plato
"Antidosis"
- mock defense against accusers
- shows his ethics and role in the community
Concepts:
- Eunoia
- Arete
- Paideia
- Phronosis
- Kairos
Gorgias
- The Power of words
- The magic of rhetoric is something that is beyond the reasonableness of its power
Isocrates
Philosophy of Education vs. Plato's
Philosophy - not searching for the perfect (Plato), more pragmatic. The study of contingent matters, not the eternal matters (Plato)
Against the Sophists
- Manifesto for opening his school
Antidosis
- A defense against a fake charge of corrupting the youth.
The role of Rhetoric: "With this faculty we both contend against others on matters which are open to dispute and seek light for ourselves on things which are unknown; for the same arguments which we use in persuading others when we speak in public, we employ also when we deliberate in out own thoughts; and, while, we call eloquent those who are able to speak before a crowd, we regard as sage those who most skillfully debate their problems in their own minds" (56).
Assumptions - Human, Nature
Aristotle
- Mixed people (good & Evil)
- People = mind, emotion, character
Plato
- Philosopher King - Good = Knowledge
- Masses of people - Evil = Ignorance
Isocrates
- Masses are noble
- Individuals are corrupt
Role of Rhetoric
Aristotle - Method
Plato - Communication
Isocrates -training (philosophy is part of rhetoric)
Gorgias
Concepts:
Paideia - culture & education
Doxa - opinons: words can take you beyond the intellectual to lead to the soul
Psychologia
Isocrates (434-388 BC)
Born just before the end of the heights of Athenian culture.
Dies right after hearing that Philip of Macedonia had conquered the Greeks
Set up his school circa 393 BC
"Against the Sophists"
- Manifesto for his school
- Argued against "bad" sophists & against Plato
"Antidosis"
- mock defense against accusers
- shows his ethics and role in the community
Concepts:
- Eunoia
- Arete
- Paideia
- Phronosis
- Kairos
Gorgias
- The Power of words
- The magic of rhetoric is something that is beyond the reasonableness of its power
Isocrates
Philosophy of Education vs. Plato's
Philosophy - not searching for the perfect (Plato), more pragmatic. The study of contingent matters, not the eternal matters (Plato)
Against the Sophists
- Manifesto for opening his school
Antidosis
- A defense against a fake charge of corrupting the youth.
The role of Rhetoric: "With this faculty we both contend against others on matters which are open to dispute and seek light for ourselves on things which are unknown; for the same arguments which we use in persuading others when we speak in public, we employ also when we deliberate in out own thoughts; and, while, we call eloquent those who are able to speak before a crowd, we regard as sage those who most skillfully debate their problems in their own minds" (56).
Assumptions - Human, Nature
Aristotle
- Mixed people (good & Evil)
- People = mind, emotion, character
Plato
- Philosopher King - Good = Knowledge
- Masses of people - Evil = Ignorance
Isocrates
- Masses are noble
- Individuals are corrupt
Role of Rhetoric
Aristotle - Method
Plato - Communication
Isocrates -training (philosophy is part of rhetoric)
Tuesday, January 9, 2007
Plato, Gorgias & Isocrates on Rhetoric
(Originally written January 9, 2007 in Book 12)
Plato's view of the Soul
- immortal
- difficult (if not impossible) to articulate
- three parts of the soul
[mind] 1) is disciplined
[passions] 2) is unruly and passionate
[will] 3) Controls both mind and passions
Types of Souls:
1) Philosopher King - musical/loving nature
2) Lawful king or warlike ruler
3) Politician, businessman, financier
4) Hard-working gymnast or physician
5) Prophet or mystic or religious man
6) Poet or imitative artist
7) Craftsmen
8) Sophist
9) Tyrant
Good Rhetoric
- Makes a systematic division of words
- Discourse constructed like a living creature, parts in proper order
- there is a good rhetoric
- good knowledge on the subject
- influencing the mind (soul) by means of words
Bad Rhetoric
- Makes probability than truth
- Unorganized
- There is bad rhetoric
- Study belief of masses in order to persuade them to do evil
- "make everything out to believe everything else"
- Critique someone else
Good Rhetorician
- Good rhetoricians have innate qualities
- Knowledge of the audience, how the mind works and what they are likely to believe
- more scientific describe, types of discourse, kinds of speech to create belief in souls and why
-has experience
- contending with words
-purpose: influence men's souls and implant convictions and virtues
Bad Rhetorician
- uses the precursors of rhetoric and posits them as rhetoric
-only knows the formulas but has no experience
Process
- isolating definition
-discerning nature of soul
- discovering appropriate speech for each nature
- arranging the discourse
- find the truth
- use of dialectic
- style - propriety and impropriety
Order of Speech (format)
1) Preamble
2) Exposition
A. Direct Evidence
B. Indirect Evidence
C. Probabilities
D. Proof
E. Supplementary proof
3) Recapitulation
Rhetoric vs. Dialectic
Acquiring Knowledge
- Dialectic - forming questions and responses
- Question asking and getting answers
- Experience
- Mental processing
- compare with previous knowledge
- translate meaning/ summarize
- agree or disagree
- expound upon ideas
Face-to-face dialogues advantages
- Interact
- Clarify
- Stimulates mind
- Flexible and different directions
- Memory
- See understanding
- audience choice
- Instant response to criticism
- Anticipates criticism
- Use multiple means of integers to discern truth
Text advantages
- Longevity
- Mass audience
- Discern falsity
- Uniform, not changing over years
- Allows for commentaries
- Review work before publication
- Communication between language barriers
- Allows for greater amount of text
- Sources
How much content knowledge does one need to speak on?
Plato - a very strong (probably too strong) amount of content.
Gorgias (480-375 BC)
- Ambassador from Leontini (Sicily)
- Arrived in Athens in 427 BC
- Studied under Tisias and Empedocles
- Attracted huge crowds
- He was honored for his original contributions to rhetoric in his lifetime
-His style was criticized as bombastic post-death
-Known for metaphor, paradox and schemata
-Gorgias' Helen is an epideictic speech that he delivered to attract students
- His philosophy of rhetoric - "persuasion is a powerful force that can bewitch and deceive the unwary"
Helen
Structure:
1) Prooeminion
2) Narration
3) Proposition
4) Proof
5) Epilogue
Things should be praised if praiseworthy; things unworthy ought to be blamed.
The function of a speaker is twofold:
1) Prove the needful rightly
2) Disprove the wrongly spoken
He claims Helen is not guilty because either
1) Fate's will
2) Gods' wishes
3) Necessity's decrees
4) was forced
5) Was seduced
6) was induced by love
to do what she did.
If the gods are responsible for Helen's actions it is because the weaker is ruled and driven by the stronger. God is stronger than men in force and in wisdom and in other ways.
If she was forced it is Paris who should be hated. Helen should be pitied.
If she was seduced by words it isn't her fault because words possess godlike powers.
"Divine sweetness transmitted through words is inductive of pleasure, reductive of pain" (35).
If she was seduced by words then, "the persuader, as user of force, did wrong; the persuaded, forced by speech is unreasonably blamed" (35).
If she was persuaded to leave by Paris then she was most unfortunate, but did no wrong.
"We see not what we wish but what each of us has experienced" (36).
Love is a god that prevails over the divine power of the gods or love is human disease, an ignorance of the soul. If Helen left out of love she is blameless.
Isocrates (436-338 BC)
- Influenced by his teachers: Prodicus and Gorgias
-Acquaintance of Socrates
- Suffered from extreme shyness and never delivered any of his speeches in public
- Worked as a logographer
-Believed that oratory should build patriotism
-Opened a school of rhetoric in Athens around 393 BC.
-The school was an immediate success. Famous students include Plato's nephew Speusippos, the general Timotheus, historians Theopompos and Ephors, Attic orators Lycurgus, Isaeus and Hypereides
- Taught oratory, composition, history, citizenship, culture and morality
Against the Sophists
Education of oratory or any other intelligence sharpening of natural, innate qualities.
Education " cannot fully fashion men who are without natural aptitude into good debaters or writers" (45).
Justice cannot be taught and lived out by depraved natures.
Antidosis
The nature of man is twofold
1) Physical
2) Mental (more valuable)
Physical training is to fit the body and philosophy is to train the mind.
Philosophy and physical training are parallel and complementary.
Philosophers and gymnasts can be taught and instructed to be great of mind or great of body so long as they possess a natural aptitude.
If one is to succeed in anything they must:
1) Possess a natural aptitude for what they have elected to do
2) Submit to training
3) Master the knowledge of their field
4) Must become versed and practiced in the use and application of their art.
Isocrates maintains that natural ability is the most important part of teaching or learning an art.
Speeches should (in defense) either
1) change the views of the accusers
2) prove their slanderers false
The Sophist have been accused of
1) Sham, no kind of education can improve the ability to speak or capacity for handling affairs (these are natural abilities)
2) They become corrupted when they gain power, "they scheme to get other people's property" (49)
Isocrates denies truth in either accusations
"All knowledge yields itself up to us only after great effort on our part, and we are by no means all equally capable of working out in practice what we learn" (49).
Isocrates disproves sophists that we have all seen men trained by sophists to become competent champions and able teachers.
Isocrates makes a distinction between educators of young men and those who merely pretend to educate.
The "sophist reaps his finest and his largest reword when his pupils prove to be honorable and intelligent and highly esteemed by their fellow-citizens"
It is in the best interest of the Sophists not to become corrupted by their power.
Isocrates asks what objects make people do evil. He answers that people do what they do for three desires of men: pleasure, gain and honor
Isocrates urges men to treat the art of discourse as all other arts, fairly.
Rhetoric conflates the bad and extols the good. It educates the ignorant and appraises the wise. "The power to speak well is taken as the surest index of a sound understanding" (56).
Persuasion rests on the character of the speaker, thus it is unwise for the Sophist to be poor of character. "The Stronger a man's desire to persuade his hearers, the more zealously will he strive to be honorable and to have esteem of his fellow citizens" (56).
It does not help a sophist to corrupt his pupils, in fact it is detrimental to their desires.
Plato's view of the Soul
- immortal
- difficult (if not impossible) to articulate
- three parts of the soul
[mind] 1) is disciplined
[passions] 2) is unruly and passionate
[will] 3) Controls both mind and passions
Types of Souls:
1) Philosopher King - musical/loving nature
2) Lawful king or warlike ruler
3) Politician, businessman, financier
4) Hard-working gymnast or physician
5) Prophet or mystic or religious man
6) Poet or imitative artist
7) Craftsmen
8) Sophist
9) Tyrant
Good Rhetoric
- Makes a systematic division of words
- Discourse constructed like a living creature, parts in proper order
- there is a good rhetoric
- good knowledge on the subject
- influencing the mind (soul) by means of words
Bad Rhetoric
- Makes probability than truth
- Unorganized
- There is bad rhetoric
- Study belief of masses in order to persuade them to do evil
- "make everything out to believe everything else"
- Critique someone else
Good Rhetorician
- Good rhetoricians have innate qualities
- Knowledge of the audience, how the mind works and what they are likely to believe
- more scientific describe, types of discourse, kinds of speech to create belief in souls and why
-has experience
- contending with words
-purpose: influence men's souls and implant convictions and virtues
Bad Rhetorician
- uses the precursors of rhetoric and posits them as rhetoric
-only knows the formulas but has no experience
Process
- isolating definition
-discerning nature of soul
- discovering appropriate speech for each nature
- arranging the discourse
- find the truth
- use of dialectic
- style - propriety and impropriety
Order of Speech (format)
1) Preamble
2) Exposition
A. Direct Evidence
B. Indirect Evidence
C. Probabilities
D. Proof
E. Supplementary proof
3) Recapitulation
Rhetoric vs. Dialectic
Acquiring Knowledge
- Dialectic - forming questions and responses
- Question asking and getting answers
- Experience
- Mental processing
- compare with previous knowledge
- translate meaning/ summarize
- agree or disagree
- expound upon ideas
Face-to-face dialogues advantages
- Interact
- Clarify
- Stimulates mind
- Flexible and different directions
- Memory
- See understanding
- audience choice
- Instant response to criticism
- Anticipates criticism
- Use multiple means of integers to discern truth
Text advantages
- Longevity
- Mass audience
- Discern falsity
- Uniform, not changing over years
- Allows for commentaries
- Review work before publication
- Communication between language barriers
- Allows for greater amount of text
- Sources
How much content knowledge does one need to speak on?
Plato - a very strong (probably too strong) amount of content.
Gorgias (480-375 BC)
- Ambassador from Leontini (Sicily)
- Arrived in Athens in 427 BC
- Studied under Tisias and Empedocles
- Attracted huge crowds
- He was honored for his original contributions to rhetoric in his lifetime
-His style was criticized as bombastic post-death
-Known for metaphor, paradox and schemata
-Gorgias' Helen is an epideictic speech that he delivered to attract students
- His philosophy of rhetoric - "persuasion is a powerful force that can bewitch and deceive the unwary"
Helen
Structure:
1) Prooeminion
2) Narration
3) Proposition
4) Proof
5) Epilogue
Things should be praised if praiseworthy; things unworthy ought to be blamed.
The function of a speaker is twofold:
1) Prove the needful rightly
2) Disprove the wrongly spoken
He claims Helen is not guilty because either
1) Fate's will
2) Gods' wishes
3) Necessity's decrees
4) was forced
5) Was seduced
6) was induced by love
to do what she did.
If the gods are responsible for Helen's actions it is because the weaker is ruled and driven by the stronger. God is stronger than men in force and in wisdom and in other ways.
If she was forced it is Paris who should be hated. Helen should be pitied.
If she was seduced by words it isn't her fault because words possess godlike powers.
"Divine sweetness transmitted through words is inductive of pleasure, reductive of pain" (35).
If she was seduced by words then, "the persuader, as user of force, did wrong; the persuaded, forced by speech is unreasonably blamed" (35).
If she was persuaded to leave by Paris then she was most unfortunate, but did no wrong.
"We see not what we wish but what each of us has experienced" (36).
Love is a god that prevails over the divine power of the gods or love is human disease, an ignorance of the soul. If Helen left out of love she is blameless.
Isocrates (436-338 BC)
- Influenced by his teachers: Prodicus and Gorgias
-Acquaintance of Socrates
- Suffered from extreme shyness and never delivered any of his speeches in public
- Worked as a logographer
-Believed that oratory should build patriotism
-Opened a school of rhetoric in Athens around 393 BC.
-The school was an immediate success. Famous students include Plato's nephew Speusippos, the general Timotheus, historians Theopompos and Ephors, Attic orators Lycurgus, Isaeus and Hypereides
- Taught oratory, composition, history, citizenship, culture and morality
Against the Sophists
Education of oratory or any other intelligence sharpening of natural, innate qualities.
Education " cannot fully fashion men who are without natural aptitude into good debaters or writers" (45).
Justice cannot be taught and lived out by depraved natures.
Antidosis
The nature of man is twofold
1) Physical
2) Mental (more valuable)
Physical training is to fit the body and philosophy is to train the mind.
Philosophy and physical training are parallel and complementary.
Philosophers and gymnasts can be taught and instructed to be great of mind or great of body so long as they possess a natural aptitude.
If one is to succeed in anything they must:
1) Possess a natural aptitude for what they have elected to do
2) Submit to training
3) Master the knowledge of their field
4) Must become versed and practiced in the use and application of their art.
Isocrates maintains that natural ability is the most important part of teaching or learning an art.
Speeches should (in defense) either
1) change the views of the accusers
2) prove their slanderers false
The Sophist have been accused of
1) Sham, no kind of education can improve the ability to speak or capacity for handling affairs (these are natural abilities)
2) They become corrupted when they gain power, "they scheme to get other people's property" (49)
Isocrates denies truth in either accusations
"All knowledge yields itself up to us only after great effort on our part, and we are by no means all equally capable of working out in practice what we learn" (49).
Isocrates disproves sophists that we have all seen men trained by sophists to become competent champions and able teachers.
Isocrates makes a distinction between educators of young men and those who merely pretend to educate.
The "sophist reaps his finest and his largest reword when his pupils prove to be honorable and intelligent and highly esteemed by their fellow-citizens"
It is in the best interest of the Sophists not to become corrupted by their power.
Isocrates asks what objects make people do evil. He answers that people do what they do for three desires of men: pleasure, gain and honor
Isocrates urges men to treat the art of discourse as all other arts, fairly.
Rhetoric conflates the bad and extols the good. It educates the ignorant and appraises the wise. "The power to speak well is taken as the surest index of a sound understanding" (56).
Persuasion rests on the character of the speaker, thus it is unwise for the Sophist to be poor of character. "The Stronger a man's desire to persuade his hearers, the more zealously will he strive to be honorable and to have esteem of his fellow citizens" (56).
It does not help a sophist to corrupt his pupils, in fact it is detrimental to their desires.
Sunday, January 7, 2007
Notes on Gorgias and Phaedrus
(Originally written January 7, 2007 in Book 12)
Readings from Classical Rhetoric
Plato (429 - 347 BC)
- Founded the Academy in Athens (387 BC)
- Plato disagreed with his educator and rival, Isocrates, about the nature and place of rhetoric in education for men in life.
- Gorgias opens with Socrates asking Gorgias, "About which of the things exist is it a science?"
- Socrates divides the arts (technai) into 8 parts, showing that both sophistical rhetoric are sham arts, "Flatteries"
- Sophistic and rhetoric aim at pleasure rather than what is good for the soul
- Phaedrus has Phaedrus and Socrates discussing a speech written by Lysias
- Phaedrus reads the speech to Socrates. Socrates criticizes the speech for being repetitive and for using the inventions of others.
-Socrates praises love as divine madness and divine blessing.
-Socrates presents rhetoric based on dialectic instead of basing it on probability.
Gorgias
Socrates aims to ask Gorgias "who he is".
Plus answers the question that there are many arts among mankind. Experience guides life along the path of art, but inexperience guides life along the path of chance. Plus states that Gorgias follows the best art because he is of the best man.
Socrates is unsatisfied with this and claims Polus is better in rhetoric than dialogue. He points out that Polus only praises the art that Gorgias practices, but does not define it.
Gorges finally states that he practices the art of rhetoric. He claims to be a good rhetorician.
Socrates asks for Gorgias to display his famed brevity in answering his question.
Socrates asks what is the scope of rhetoric. What is the field or the science of rhetoric? Gorgias answers, "words".
Socrates points out that rhetoric is not concerned with every kind of words. He also points out that all disciplines need words. He asks why all other disciplines are not called rhetoric.
Gorgias replies that rhetoric deals with no manual products, but all its activity is accompanied through the medium of words.
Socrates pints out that there are sciences (arts) that accomplish their end through words, but have subject matter for their discourse.
Gorges states the subject matter of rhetoric is "the greatest and noblest of human affairs" (63).
Socrates points out that to claim that rhetoric's subject matter is "the greatest and noblest of human affairs" is an unsubstantial value judgment.
Gorgias claims that the blessing rhetoric bestows on man is the freedom it brings. It gives men power over others (power of persuasion).
Gorgias - The sum and substance of rhetoric is that it is a creator of persuasion.
Socrates shows that all arts, when they are taught, are creators of persuasion, "Then rhetoric is not the only creator of persuasion" (65).
Gorges claims that the creator of persuasion in rhetoric deals with persuasion concerning what is right and wrong.
Socrates points out that knowledge and belief aren't the same, but both those who have learned and those who believed have been persuaded.
There are two forms of persuasion:
1) Producing belief without knowledge
2) Producing knowledge
Socrates shows that rhetoric is the first type of persuasion: "rhetoric apparently is a creator of conviction that is persuasive but not in structure about right and wrong" (66).
Gorges claims that rhetoric controls all other faculties. The rhetorician would be chosen over any professional because of his ability to speak.
Rhetoric is a competitive art according to Gorgias. "The rhetorician is competent to speak against anybody on any subject, and to prove himself more convincing before a crowd on practically every topic he wishes" (67).
Gorges claims that while the rhetorician can sway any crowd, he should not use it to rob the power of any craftsmen.
Gorges claims he can teach any man to be a rhetorician.
A rhetorician has his power in a crowd over a professional because the crowd is ignorant.
The rhetorician is ignorant, can persuade the ignorant.
A rhetorician must have knowledge of what is good and what is evil.
A rhetorician must be just and never want to do unjust acts.
(Socrates says to know justice is to be just).
Socrates claims rhetoric is no art at all. He claims it is a kind of routine. A routine that produces gratification and pleasure. He compares rhetoric to cookery.
Rhetoric is not an art. It is a profession of "shrewd and enterprising spirit" (72).
Rhetoric is the semblance of a part of politics.
There are four arts, 2 for the body, two for the soul.
Body:
1) Gymnastics
2) Medicine
Soul:
1) Legislation
2) Justice
(The political arts)
Flattery impersonates the four arts:
Body:
1) Beautification impersonates gymnastics
2) Cookery impersonates medicine
Soul:
1) Sophistry impersonates legislation
2) Rhetoric impersonates justice
Flattery is irrational. It is concerned only with pleasure, not with the Good.
Phaedrus
Plato
There is nothing shameful in writing speeches. Only shameful and bad speeches brings shame to the speaker.
Cicadas genealogy [an interesting myth]
Socrates asks: what is the nature of good and bad writing?
Good and successful discourse presupposes knowledge.
Socrates argues that orators can make evil appear good and the unjust appear just.
Rhetoric is most effective when the subject of the words used are understood subjectively.
Love is a sort of madness.
There are two types of madness:
1) One resulting from human ailments
2) One resulting from divine disturbance
There are four types of divine disturbance:
1) The inspiration of the prophet to Apollo
2) The mysticism of Dionysus
3) The Poetry of the Muses
4) The madness of the lover (Aphrodite & Eros)
The madness of the lover is the highest type of divine disturbance./
Speeches rest on two procedures:
1) Bringing definitions (regardless of their truth or falsehood) into lucidity and consistency
2) Bringing clear definitions into inconsistencies and shrouding the understandable with confusion
A speech must begin with a preamble. Next comes an exposition, accompanied by direct evidence, then indirect evidence, next probabilities. There are also proof and supplementary proof.
Tisias and Gorgias made probability better than truth with he power of their words.
To end a speech one uses a recapitulation (a reminding of the speech's main points to the audience).
Phaedrus contends that speeches posses "a very substantial power.. at all events in large assemblies" (85).
Socrates maintains that great rhetoricians are born with an innate gift and must practice their trade.
The speaker's effort is entirely focused on the hearer's soul.
A scientific rhetorician must:
1) Examine the nature of the soul
2) Examine what natural capacity the soul has to act upon what, through what means, or by what it can be acted upon
3) Classify the types of discourse and types of soul
Socrates maintains that all rhetoricians of his time know the nature of the soul, but hide they knowledge from the audience. They do not instruct their pupils in a scientific rhetoric.
The function of oratory is to influence man's soul.
The number of discourses corresponds to the number of souls (types of souls).
In rhetoric, pupils are taught to replace truth with probability because probability is more persuasive.
Probability is good as a likeness of truth.
Socrates maintains that the written word can do nothing more than remind one who knows that which the writing is concerned with.
Conditions for speech writing:
1) Know the truth about the subject you speak or write about
2) Have a corresponding discernment of the nature of the soul.
Those who use knowledge in discourse are lovers of wisdom. Those who use eloquence in discourse are poets or speech-writing or law-writers.
Readings from Classical Rhetoric
Plato (429 - 347 BC)
- Founded the Academy in Athens (387 BC)
- Plato disagreed with his educator and rival, Isocrates, about the nature and place of rhetoric in education for men in life.
- Gorgias opens with Socrates asking Gorgias, "About which of the things exist is it a science?"
- Socrates divides the arts (technai) into 8 parts, showing that both sophistical rhetoric are sham arts, "Flatteries"
- Sophistic and rhetoric aim at pleasure rather than what is good for the soul
- Phaedrus has Phaedrus and Socrates discussing a speech written by Lysias
- Phaedrus reads the speech to Socrates. Socrates criticizes the speech for being repetitive and for using the inventions of others.
-Socrates praises love as divine madness and divine blessing.
-Socrates presents rhetoric based on dialectic instead of basing it on probability.
Gorgias
Socrates aims to ask Gorgias "who he is".
Plus answers the question that there are many arts among mankind. Experience guides life along the path of art, but inexperience guides life along the path of chance. Plus states that Gorgias follows the best art because he is of the best man.
Socrates is unsatisfied with this and claims Polus is better in rhetoric than dialogue. He points out that Polus only praises the art that Gorgias practices, but does not define it.
Gorges finally states that he practices the art of rhetoric. He claims to be a good rhetorician.
Socrates asks for Gorgias to display his famed brevity in answering his question.
Socrates asks what is the scope of rhetoric. What is the field or the science of rhetoric? Gorgias answers, "words".
Socrates points out that rhetoric is not concerned with every kind of words. He also points out that all disciplines need words. He asks why all other disciplines are not called rhetoric.
Gorgias replies that rhetoric deals with no manual products, but all its activity is accompanied through the medium of words.
Socrates pints out that there are sciences (arts) that accomplish their end through words, but have subject matter for their discourse.
Gorges states the subject matter of rhetoric is "the greatest and noblest of human affairs" (63).
Socrates points out that to claim that rhetoric's subject matter is "the greatest and noblest of human affairs" is an unsubstantial value judgment.
Gorgias claims that the blessing rhetoric bestows on man is the freedom it brings. It gives men power over others (power of persuasion).
Gorgias - The sum and substance of rhetoric is that it is a creator of persuasion.
Socrates shows that all arts, when they are taught, are creators of persuasion, "Then rhetoric is not the only creator of persuasion" (65).
Gorges claims that the creator of persuasion in rhetoric deals with persuasion concerning what is right and wrong.
Socrates points out that knowledge and belief aren't the same, but both those who have learned and those who believed have been persuaded.
There are two forms of persuasion:
1) Producing belief without knowledge
2) Producing knowledge
Socrates shows that rhetoric is the first type of persuasion: "rhetoric apparently is a creator of conviction that is persuasive but not in structure about right and wrong" (66).
Gorges claims that rhetoric controls all other faculties. The rhetorician would be chosen over any professional because of his ability to speak.
Rhetoric is a competitive art according to Gorgias. "The rhetorician is competent to speak against anybody on any subject, and to prove himself more convincing before a crowd on practically every topic he wishes" (67).
Gorges claims that while the rhetorician can sway any crowd, he should not use it to rob the power of any craftsmen.
Gorges claims he can teach any man to be a rhetorician.
A rhetorician has his power in a crowd over a professional because the crowd is ignorant.
The rhetorician is ignorant, can persuade the ignorant.
A rhetorician must have knowledge of what is good and what is evil.
A rhetorician must be just and never want to do unjust acts.
(Socrates says to know justice is to be just).
Socrates claims rhetoric is no art at all. He claims it is a kind of routine. A routine that produces gratification and pleasure. He compares rhetoric to cookery.
Rhetoric is not an art. It is a profession of "shrewd and enterprising spirit" (72).
Rhetoric is the semblance of a part of politics.
There are four arts, 2 for the body, two for the soul.
Body:
1) Gymnastics
2) Medicine
Soul:
1) Legislation
2) Justice
(The political arts)
Flattery impersonates the four arts:
Body:
1) Beautification impersonates gymnastics
2) Cookery impersonates medicine
Soul:
1) Sophistry impersonates legislation
2) Rhetoric impersonates justice
Flattery is irrational. It is concerned only with pleasure, not with the Good.
Phaedrus
Plato
There is nothing shameful in writing speeches. Only shameful and bad speeches brings shame to the speaker.
Cicadas genealogy [an interesting myth]
Socrates asks: what is the nature of good and bad writing?
Good and successful discourse presupposes knowledge.
Socrates argues that orators can make evil appear good and the unjust appear just.
Rhetoric is most effective when the subject of the words used are understood subjectively.
Love is a sort of madness.
There are two types of madness:
1) One resulting from human ailments
2) One resulting from divine disturbance
There are four types of divine disturbance:
1) The inspiration of the prophet to Apollo
2) The mysticism of Dionysus
3) The Poetry of the Muses
4) The madness of the lover (Aphrodite & Eros)
The madness of the lover is the highest type of divine disturbance./
Speeches rest on two procedures:
1) Bringing definitions (regardless of their truth or falsehood) into lucidity and consistency
2) Bringing clear definitions into inconsistencies and shrouding the understandable with confusion
A speech must begin with a preamble. Next comes an exposition, accompanied by direct evidence, then indirect evidence, next probabilities. There are also proof and supplementary proof.
Tisias and Gorgias made probability better than truth with he power of their words.
To end a speech one uses a recapitulation (a reminding of the speech's main points to the audience).
Phaedrus contends that speeches posses "a very substantial power.. at all events in large assemblies" (85).
Socrates maintains that great rhetoricians are born with an innate gift and must practice their trade.
The speaker's effort is entirely focused on the hearer's soul.
A scientific rhetorician must:
1) Examine the nature of the soul
2) Examine what natural capacity the soul has to act upon what, through what means, or by what it can be acted upon
3) Classify the types of discourse and types of soul
Socrates maintains that all rhetoricians of his time know the nature of the soul, but hide they knowledge from the audience. They do not instruct their pupils in a scientific rhetoric.
The function of oratory is to influence man's soul.
The number of discourses corresponds to the number of souls (types of souls).
In rhetoric, pupils are taught to replace truth with probability because probability is more persuasive.
Probability is good as a likeness of truth.
Socrates maintains that the written word can do nothing more than remind one who knows that which the writing is concerned with.
Conditions for speech writing:
1) Know the truth about the subject you speak or write about
2) Have a corresponding discernment of the nature of the soul.
Those who use knowledge in discourse are lovers of wisdom. Those who use eloquence in discourse are poets or speech-writing or law-writers.
Saturday, January 6, 2007
Philosophy of Religion: Hick - Ch. 1 (C)
(Originally written January 6, 2007 in Book 7)
Philosophy of Religion
John Hick
Holy
God is Holy
The Judaic-Christian concept of God:
-infinite
-eternal
-uncreated
-personal reality
-created all that exists
-revealed to man as holy and loving
Too Tired.
Philosophy of Religion
John Hick
Holy
God is Holy
The Judaic-Christian concept of God:
-infinite
-eternal
-uncreated
-personal reality
-created all that exists
-revealed to man as holy and loving
Too Tired.
Friday, January 5, 2007
Class Notes on Rhetoric & Ideas on Angels
(Originally written January 5, 2007 in Book 12)
Class Notes
Four most important in pathos
1) Fortune
2) Age
3) Emotions
4) ?
Generalizations
- Use to stir emotions
- Starting point for rhetoric
- Positive spin on the generalization
- Appeal to positive aspects of generalization
- Help with lexis/terms
- React to evidence
Off Topic
- The body of man and the soul of man are corrupted and to be damned.
- The soul of fallen angels are corrupted and damned, but they have no body.
- The soul of man is redeemable because of the wages of of sin can be paid by death. Thus, the body dies (and the unredeemed soul death too) but the redeemed soul does not pass away.
-Fallen angels must pay the wages of sin (death) but since they have no body it is their soul which must die.
-This is why humans are redeemable post-sin, but fallen Angels and pure-soul beings are not.
Three things important to Topoi
1) Possible/Impossible
2) Post and Future Fact
3) Magnitude
Topoi:
1) From Opposites
2) From Grammatical Form
3) From Correlatives
4) From More and the Less
5) From looking at the time
6) From turning the argument on the opposed
7) From definition
8) From varied meanings
9) From division
10) From induction
11) From Authority
12) From subordinate parts
13) From consequence
14) From contrasting opposites
15) From hypocritical deception
16) From consequences by analogy
17) From results to causes
18) From contrasted choices
19) From identifying purpose with cause
20) From reasons for and against
21) From the implausible
22) From contradictions
23) From the cause of a false impression
24) From cause and effect
25) From a better plan
26) From a comparison of contraries
27) From what would have been a mistake
28) From meaning of a name
Invention
Content
Delivery
4 Principles of Aristotle's Rhetoric Style
1. Clarity
2. Appropriateness
3. Correctness
4. Consciousness
Aristotle's Arrangement of Rhetoric
Prooimion (intro)
Anticipated Criticisms
Narrative
Proof (bulk)
Interrogation
Conclusion
Class Notes
Four most important in pathos
1) Fortune
2) Age
3) Emotions
4) ?
Generalizations
- Use to stir emotions
- Starting point for rhetoric
- Positive spin on the generalization
- Appeal to positive aspects of generalization
- Help with lexis/terms
- React to evidence
Off Topic
- The body of man and the soul of man are corrupted and to be damned.
- The soul of fallen angels are corrupted and damned, but they have no body.
- The soul of man is redeemable because of the wages of of sin can be paid by death. Thus, the body dies (and the unredeemed soul death too) but the redeemed soul does not pass away.
-Fallen angels must pay the wages of sin (death) but since they have no body it is their soul which must die.
-This is why humans are redeemable post-sin, but fallen Angels and pure-soul beings are not.
Three things important to Topoi
1) Possible/Impossible
2) Post and Future Fact
3) Magnitude
Topoi:
1) From Opposites
2) From Grammatical Form
3) From Correlatives
4) From More and the Less
5) From looking at the time
6) From turning the argument on the opposed
7) From definition
8) From varied meanings
9) From division
10) From induction
11) From Authority
12) From subordinate parts
13) From consequence
14) From contrasting opposites
15) From hypocritical deception
16) From consequences by analogy
17) From results to causes
18) From contrasted choices
19) From identifying purpose with cause
20) From reasons for and against
21) From the implausible
22) From contradictions
23) From the cause of a false impression
24) From cause and effect
25) From a better plan
26) From a comparison of contraries
27) From what would have been a mistake
28) From meaning of a name
Invention
Content
Delivery
4 Principles of Aristotle's Rhetoric Style
1. Clarity
2. Appropriateness
3. Correctness
4. Consciousness
Aristotle's Arrangement of Rhetoric
Prooimion (intro)
Anticipated Criticisms
Narrative
Proof (bulk)
Interrogation
Conclusion
Book Notes on Rhetoric
(Originally written January 5, 2007 in Book 12)
Book III - Delivery, Style and Arrangement
Lexis - "Way of saying something", Style
Logos - "What is said"
Taxis - "Arrangement/order"
Ch. 1 - Introduction
3 Parts of speech:
1. Pisteis
2. Lexis
3. Taxis
Hypokrisis, or Delivery
Delivery includes volume, tone and pitch of the speaker.
Delivery has great power because of the corruption of the audience.
"Speeches have greater effect through expression [lexis] than through thought"
Chapter 2 - The Arete or Virtue of Good Prose Style; word choice and metaphors
The Virtue of Style - Lexeos arete
Words should be appropriate to the speaker and the subject matter.
Orators should speak in natural, not artificial ways.
One should use strange or rare words sparingly.
Metaphors are useful.
Ch. 7 To Prepow, or Appropriateness, Propriety
"The lexis will be appropriate if it expresses emotion and character and is proportional to the subject matter" (210).
Proportion exists when weighty matters are not discussed casually and when light matters are not discussed ornamentally.
The proper lexis makes the matter seem credible.
"Many overwhelm their hearers by making noise" (210).
There is an appropriate lexis for each genus and moral state.
Genus - boy, man, old man, woman, Spartan, Thessalonian, etc.)
Moral state [hexis] - the principles by which someone is the kind of person he is.
All speakers must preempt criticism in their speech.
Ch. 12 Oral and Written Style - Deliberative, Judicial and Epideictic Styles
Each genus of rhetoric has its own appropriate lexis.
Speeches and written works have different styles. A spoken written work seems flat and written speech seems childish.
Ch. 13 The necessary parts of a speech
2 Parts of a speech:
1) To state the subject
2) Demonstrate the argument
Necessary parts:
1) Prothesis [proposition]
2_ Pistis [proof]
Ch. 14 The Prooimion, or Introduction
The prooemion is the beginning of the speech
Epideictic Prooemia
The Epideictic prooemia is drawn from praise or blame and from offering advice.
Ch. 15 Ways of Meeting a Prejudicial Attack, the Question at Issue
One way to counteract a prejudicial attack is to use arguments to refute an unpleasant suspicion.
Another way is to deny what is at issue.
Another way is to claim that it was a mistake or bad luck.
Another way is to accuse the accuser.
Another way is to use slander.
Another way (which is most artful and most unjust) is to seek to harm by saying good things.
Book III - Delivery, Style and Arrangement
Lexis - "Way of saying something", Style
Logos - "What is said"
Taxis - "Arrangement/order"
Ch. 1 - Introduction
3 Parts of speech:
1. Pisteis
2. Lexis
3. Taxis
Hypokrisis, or Delivery
Delivery includes volume, tone and pitch of the speaker.
Delivery has great power because of the corruption of the audience.
"Speeches have greater effect through expression [lexis] than through thought"
Chapter 2 - The Arete or Virtue of Good Prose Style; word choice and metaphors
The Virtue of Style - Lexeos arete
Words should be appropriate to the speaker and the subject matter.
Orators should speak in natural, not artificial ways.
One should use strange or rare words sparingly.
Metaphors are useful.
Ch. 7 To Prepow, or Appropriateness, Propriety
"The lexis will be appropriate if it expresses emotion and character and is proportional to the subject matter" (210).
Proportion exists when weighty matters are not discussed casually and when light matters are not discussed ornamentally.
The proper lexis makes the matter seem credible.
"Many overwhelm their hearers by making noise" (210).
There is an appropriate lexis for each genus and moral state.
Genus - boy, man, old man, woman, Spartan, Thessalonian, etc.)
Moral state [hexis] - the principles by which someone is the kind of person he is.
All speakers must preempt criticism in their speech.
Ch. 12 Oral and Written Style - Deliberative, Judicial and Epideictic Styles
Each genus of rhetoric has its own appropriate lexis.
Speeches and written works have different styles. A spoken written work seems flat and written speech seems childish.
Ch. 13 The necessary parts of a speech
2 Parts of a speech:
1) To state the subject
2) Demonstrate the argument
Necessary parts:
1) Prothesis [proposition]
2_ Pistis [proof]
Ch. 14 The Prooimion, or Introduction
The prooemion is the beginning of the speech
Epideictic Prooemia
The Epideictic prooemia is drawn from praise or blame and from offering advice.
Ch. 15 Ways of Meeting a Prejudicial Attack, the Question at Issue
One way to counteract a prejudicial attack is to use arguments to refute an unpleasant suspicion.
Another way is to deny what is at issue.
Another way is to claim that it was a mistake or bad luck.
Another way is to accuse the accuser.
Another way is to use slander.
Another way (which is most artful and most unjust) is to seek to harm by saying good things.
Thursday, January 4, 2007
Rhetoric Book Notes (all over the map)
(Originally written January 4, 2007 in Book 12)
On Rhetoric
Aristotle
pp. 72-79
Ch. 8 Topics About Constitutions Useful in Deliberative Rhetoric
The most important concept to grasp in the art of persuasion is an understanding of all forms of constitutions and the advantages of each form.
All people are persuaded by what is advantageous.
Four forms of Constitution
1) Democracy
2) Oligarchy
3) Aristocracy
4) Monarchy/Tyranny
The end of democracy is freedom. The end of oligarchy is wealth. The end of aristocracy is education and tradition. The end of monarchy/tyranny is self-preservation.
Ch. 9 Epideictic Rhetoric
Kalon - honorable, fine, noble
Airskhron - shameful
Kalon and aiskhron are the focus of Epideictic rhetoric.
Kalon describes whatever is praiseworthy, whatever is pleasing because it is good.
Virtue is necessarily kalon
Virtue [arete] is an ability [dynamis]
Epideictic rhetoric deals with bestowing honor on to what is honorable in appropriate means and manner.
Ch. 10 - 15: Judicial Rhetoric
Cultural difference between Aristotle's Greece and Modern Western Society:
1) Assumption of naturally having personal enemies
2) A right to vengeance
In judicial rhetoric one must grasp:
1) Purpose for wrongdoing
2) Mental dispositions of wrongdoers
3) Who they wronged and why
Wrongdoing [toadikein]: doing harm willingly in contravention of the law
Vice [kakia] and weakness [akrasia] are the reasons why people do wrongdoings.
People act either on their own initiative or not on their own initiative.
Acts not on their own initiative are done by:
1) Chance
2) Nature
3) Compulsion
Acts on their own initiative are done by:
1) Habit
2) Desire
Habit and desire are sometimes rational, sometimes irrational.
Every act is caused by one of these seven causes:
1) Chance
2) Nature
3) Compulsion
4) Reason
5) Anger
6) Longing
7) Habit
Anger and longing are irrational
Actions by chance have no purpose. Actions by nature have a cause that is in the action and ordained. Actions by compulsion are the actor's own doing, but against their will/desire. Actions by habit occur because they do it often. Actions by reason occur because the action seems advantageous on the basis of goods. They are a means to some end. Actions by anger/desire deal with vengeance. Actions by longing are done for pleasure.
Book II - Pisteis, Or the Means of Persuasion in Public Address (Cont'd)
Three Artistic modes of persuasion
1) Presenting the character (ethos) of the speaker as favorable
2) Awakening emotion (pathos) in the audience
3) Showing the content of the speech to be probable by means of logical argument (logos)
Chapter 1 - Introduction
Rhetoric is concerned with making a judgment
Speakers are persuasive for 3 reasons:
1) Practical wisdom [phronesis]
2) Virtue [arete]
3) Goodwill [Eunoia]
The emotions [pathe] are why people differ in their judgments.
Chapters 2-11: propositions about emotions useful to a speaker in all species of rhetoric. These chapters are the earliest systematic discussion of human psychology.
Aristotle sees emotions as temporary states of mind, not attributes of character or natural desires.
Chapter 2: Ogre or Anger
The definitions and causes of anger:
Anger: "desire, accompanied by mental and physical distress, for apparent retaliation because of an apparent slight that was directed, without justification, against oneself or those near to one" (116).
Belittling: "an actualization of opinion about what seems worthless"
3 species of Belittling:
1) Contempt
2) spite
3) Insult
Belittling breeds pleasure in the belittler
The young and rich are prone to insult because it makes them feel superior to who they have insulted.
The state of Mind of those who become angry:
The longing for something, but being frustrated in their efforts becomes angry.
A person is easily angered when the opposite of what he expects to happens, happens.
Introduction to Dialectic From Aristotle Topics 1, 1-3
Rhetoric is a counterpart to dialectic.
Syllogism is a statement (logos)
Apodeixis (logical demonstration) occurs when the syllogism is drawn from things that are true and primary.
A syllogism is dialectic when it is drawn from endoxa (common opinion)
Endoxa seems right to the wise, but is not as certain as apodeixis
Syllogism is eristical (contentious) when it appears to be derived from endoxa, but it is not. Eristical syllogisms appear to syllogize, but do not.
Paralogisms are syllogisms derived from premises concerned with specific sciences.
Dialectical is useful in three ways:
1) Mental training
2) Serious conversation
3) Sciences along philosophical lines
Dialectic is investigative.
Chapters 12-17 (BK II) Topics about Ethos, useful in adapting the character of the speech to the character of the audience.
Socrates maintains that a true art of speech is impossible without knowledge of the soul.
Aristotle uses the term 'ethos' primarily as 'moral character.
Ch. 12 Introduction; the characters of the young.
Young men are pleasure loving, impulsive and optimistic
Ages of life:
1) Youth
2) Prime
3) Old Age
The song are prone to desires and impulsiveness.
Deepest desire for the young; sex, and they are powerless against this
Youth long for superiority, honor and victory.
Youth is not cynical, not lovers of money, trusting and filled with hopes.
Hope is future; memory is past. For the young, future is long and past is short.
Youth is courageous, sensitive to shame, fearless, magnanimous, live by natural character rather than calculation. They are fond of friends. They live in excess. They are witty. They are insolent.
Ch. 18-26: Dialectic features of Rhetoric common to all 3 species
Ch. 18 Introduction
All three speech genres must make use of the common premises [koina]. These are the possible and impossible.
All use diminution and amplification
Ch. 19 The Koina: the possible and the impossible, past and future fact, degree of magnitude or importance
The Possible and Impossible
If one of two things is possible, the other is likewise possible.
The whole of which is possible of which the parts are possible.
If the species is possible, so too is the genus.
If double is possible, so too is half.
Past and Future Fact
It is probable that one who was going to do something has done it.
Ch. 20-22 Koinai Pisteis, or common modes of persuasion
Common Pisteis are of two kinds:
1) paradigm
2) enthyme
Paradigm is similar to an induction; induction is a beginning.
2 Species of Paradigm
1) Comparison [parabole]
2) Fables [logoi]
p.s. I'm so freaking horny its not funny.
Fables are fictional, comparisons are historical.
Enthymemes should be used if available and paradigms as witnesses to enthymemes.
If paradigms are used as the primary then many must be supplied. But, if paradigms are merely used as witnesses to enthymemes, then only a few will suffice.
Specific Topics of Enthymemes
Praise or blame must be based on relevant facts.
Common: those facts the subject shares with other subjects.
Specifics [idia] those facts particular to subject "X".
Two species of enthymeme:
1) Demonstrative
2) Refutative
Ch. 23
Topic 1: From Opposites
- topos of demonstrative
- if the opposite predicate is true of the opposite subject, the argument is refuted.
Topic 2: From grammatical form
- The same predicate ought to be true or not true
Topic 3: From Correlations
Topic 4: From the more and the less
ex. "If not even the gods know everything the humans know even less"
Ch. 24 Real and Apparent, or Fallacious Enthymemes
A rhetorical syllogism may be either an enthymeme or only appear as such.
Fallacious topic 1: From Verbal Style
Fallacious topic 2: From combination/division, fallacy by omission
Fallacious topic 3: From exaggeration
Fallacious topic 4: From an unnecessary sign
Fallacious topic 5: From an accidental result
Fallacious topic 6: Affirming the consequent
Fallacious topic 7: Post-hoc, ergo propter hoc
On Rhetoric
Aristotle
pp. 72-79
Ch. 8 Topics About Constitutions Useful in Deliberative Rhetoric
The most important concept to grasp in the art of persuasion is an understanding of all forms of constitutions and the advantages of each form.
All people are persuaded by what is advantageous.
Four forms of Constitution
1) Democracy
2) Oligarchy
3) Aristocracy
4) Monarchy/Tyranny
The end of democracy is freedom. The end of oligarchy is wealth. The end of aristocracy is education and tradition. The end of monarchy/tyranny is self-preservation.
Ch. 9 Epideictic Rhetoric
Kalon - honorable, fine, noble
Airskhron - shameful
Kalon and aiskhron are the focus of Epideictic rhetoric.
Kalon describes whatever is praiseworthy, whatever is pleasing because it is good.
Virtue is necessarily kalon
Virtue [arete] is an ability [dynamis]
Epideictic rhetoric deals with bestowing honor on to what is honorable in appropriate means and manner.
Ch. 10 - 15: Judicial Rhetoric
Cultural difference between Aristotle's Greece and Modern Western Society:
1) Assumption of naturally having personal enemies
2) A right to vengeance
In judicial rhetoric one must grasp:
1) Purpose for wrongdoing
2) Mental dispositions of wrongdoers
3) Who they wronged and why
Wrongdoing [toadikein]: doing harm willingly in contravention of the law
Vice [kakia] and weakness [akrasia] are the reasons why people do wrongdoings.
People act either on their own initiative or not on their own initiative.
Acts not on their own initiative are done by:
1) Chance
2) Nature
3) Compulsion
Acts on their own initiative are done by:
1) Habit
2) Desire
Habit and desire are sometimes rational, sometimes irrational.
Every act is caused by one of these seven causes:
1) Chance
2) Nature
3) Compulsion
4) Reason
5) Anger
6) Longing
7) Habit
Anger and longing are irrational
Actions by chance have no purpose. Actions by nature have a cause that is in the action and ordained. Actions by compulsion are the actor's own doing, but against their will/desire. Actions by habit occur because they do it often. Actions by reason occur because the action seems advantageous on the basis of goods. They are a means to some end. Actions by anger/desire deal with vengeance. Actions by longing are done for pleasure.
Book II - Pisteis, Or the Means of Persuasion in Public Address (Cont'd)
Three Artistic modes of persuasion
1) Presenting the character (ethos) of the speaker as favorable
2) Awakening emotion (pathos) in the audience
3) Showing the content of the speech to be probable by means of logical argument (logos)
Chapter 1 - Introduction
Rhetoric is concerned with making a judgment
Speakers are persuasive for 3 reasons:
1) Practical wisdom [phronesis]
2) Virtue [arete]
3) Goodwill [Eunoia]
The emotions [pathe] are why people differ in their judgments.
Chapters 2-11: propositions about emotions useful to a speaker in all species of rhetoric. These chapters are the earliest systematic discussion of human psychology.
Aristotle sees emotions as temporary states of mind, not attributes of character or natural desires.
Chapter 2: Ogre or Anger
The definitions and causes of anger:
Anger: "desire, accompanied by mental and physical distress, for apparent retaliation because of an apparent slight that was directed, without justification, against oneself or those near to one" (116).
Belittling: "an actualization of opinion about what seems worthless"
3 species of Belittling:
1) Contempt
2) spite
3) Insult
Belittling breeds pleasure in the belittler
The young and rich are prone to insult because it makes them feel superior to who they have insulted.
The state of Mind of those who become angry:
The longing for something, but being frustrated in their efforts becomes angry.
A person is easily angered when the opposite of what he expects to happens, happens.
Introduction to Dialectic From Aristotle Topics 1, 1-3
Rhetoric is a counterpart to dialectic.
Syllogism is a statement (logos)
Apodeixis (logical demonstration) occurs when the syllogism is drawn from things that are true and primary.
A syllogism is dialectic when it is drawn from endoxa (common opinion)
Endoxa seems right to the wise, but is not as certain as apodeixis
Syllogism is eristical (contentious) when it appears to be derived from endoxa, but it is not. Eristical syllogisms appear to syllogize, but do not.
Paralogisms are syllogisms derived from premises concerned with specific sciences.
Dialectical is useful in three ways:
1) Mental training
2) Serious conversation
3) Sciences along philosophical lines
Dialectic is investigative.
Chapters 12-17 (BK II) Topics about Ethos, useful in adapting the character of the speech to the character of the audience.
Socrates maintains that a true art of speech is impossible without knowledge of the soul.
Aristotle uses the term 'ethos' primarily as 'moral character.
Ch. 12 Introduction; the characters of the young.
Young men are pleasure loving, impulsive and optimistic
Ages of life:
1) Youth
2) Prime
3) Old Age
The song are prone to desires and impulsiveness.
Deepest desire for the young; sex, and they are powerless against this
Youth long for superiority, honor and victory.
Youth is not cynical, not lovers of money, trusting and filled with hopes.
Hope is future; memory is past. For the young, future is long and past is short.
Youth is courageous, sensitive to shame, fearless, magnanimous, live by natural character rather than calculation. They are fond of friends. They live in excess. They are witty. They are insolent.
Ch. 18-26: Dialectic features of Rhetoric common to all 3 species
Ch. 18 Introduction
All three speech genres must make use of the common premises [koina]. These are the possible and impossible.
All use diminution and amplification
Ch. 19 The Koina: the possible and the impossible, past and future fact, degree of magnitude or importance
The Possible and Impossible
If one of two things is possible, the other is likewise possible.
The whole of which is possible of which the parts are possible.
If the species is possible, so too is the genus.
If double is possible, so too is half.
Past and Future Fact
It is probable that one who was going to do something has done it.
Ch. 20-22 Koinai Pisteis, or common modes of persuasion
Common Pisteis are of two kinds:
1) paradigm
2) enthyme
Paradigm is similar to an induction; induction is a beginning.
2 Species of Paradigm
1) Comparison [parabole]
2) Fables [logoi]
p.s. I'm so freaking horny its not funny.
Fables are fictional, comparisons are historical.
Enthymemes should be used if available and paradigms as witnesses to enthymemes.
If paradigms are used as the primary then many must be supplied. But, if paradigms are merely used as witnesses to enthymemes, then only a few will suffice.
Specific Topics of Enthymemes
Praise or blame must be based on relevant facts.
Common: those facts the subject shares with other subjects.
Specifics [idia] those facts particular to subject "X".
Two species of enthymeme:
1) Demonstrative
2) Refutative
Ch. 23
Topic 1: From Opposites
- topos of demonstrative
- if the opposite predicate is true of the opposite subject, the argument is refuted.
Topic 2: From grammatical form
- The same predicate ought to be true or not true
Topic 3: From Correlations
Topic 4: From the more and the less
ex. "If not even the gods know everything the humans know even less"
Ch. 24 Real and Apparent, or Fallacious Enthymemes
A rhetorical syllogism may be either an enthymeme or only appear as such.
Fallacious topic 1: From Verbal Style
Fallacious topic 2: From combination/division, fallacy by omission
Fallacious topic 3: From exaggeration
Fallacious topic 4: From an unnecessary sign
Fallacious topic 5: From an accidental result
Fallacious topic 6: Affirming the consequent
Fallacious topic 7: Post-hoc, ergo propter hoc
Rhetoric Class Notes 1.4.07
(Originally written January 4, 2007 in Book 12)
Definitions:
Rhetoric - an antistrophos to dialectic (30)
Rhetoric - an ability, in each case to see the available means of persuasion (37) [main def.]
Rhetoric - knowledge of the available means of persuasion and looking at all possible outcomes (266)
Rhetoric - an offshoot of dialectic (39)
Rhetoric is not a product! Rhetoric is a process
Canon of Rhetoric
-Invention
-Arrangement
-Style
-Memory
-Delivery
Dialectic v. Rhetoric
Similarities:
-Each deal with universal questions
-Each deal with questions that do not belong to a specific science or art
-Each can reason on both sides
-Each starts with endoxa (common opinions)
Differences
- In purpose, dialectic tests an argument; rhetoric defends an idea or self.
- In practitioner, dialectic has expert dialecticians; rhetoric is done by ordinary citizens
- In Method, dialectic is Socratic, in rhetoric it is speech
- In issue, dialectic deals with generalities, rhetoric deals with particulars
- In audience, dialectic audience is small, rhetoric audience is large
- In argument, dialectic uses syllogism, rhetoric uses enthymeme
- In proofs, dialectic uses argument, rhetoric uses argument, character and emotions
Dialectic is part of rhetoric, but rhetoric does not always have to use dialectic.
Rhetoric deals with debatable and refutable things.
Rhetoric is a combination of analytic knowledge (dialectic) and knowledge of characters.
Does Aristotle mean pathos in the way we understand psychology?
Rhetoric includes:
1) Knowledge of logic
2) Knowledge of pathos
3) A grasp of constitutional politics
4) a basis of common beliefs
Rhetoric:
-Ability
-Tool
-Needs knowledge on content/subject
Audiences
Rhetoric must consider emotions and values of the audience.
Enthymeme is the foundation of Rhetoric
An enthymeme is to Rhetoric as a syllogism is to logic (dialectic)
Enthymeme is a claim (Aristotle: proposition) and a reason (for/because).
Enthymeme - something in the mind
Enthymemes are based on:
1) Facts (not usual)
2) Theories
3) Cultural Assumptions
Enthymemes are derived from
1) Probability
2) Signs
Enthymeme (aka Rhetorical syllogism)
Structure of an Enthymeme
1) State the claim (topoi)
2) Back it up with reason
Enthymemes are about general and specific things
Contradiction?
Aristotle's three most common general propositions rhetoricians must know"
1) Advantageous and opposite
2) Just and Unjust
3) Honorable and Dishonorable
Dissection of Aristotle's Enthymemes:
"Rhetoric is an antistrophos to dialectic" [The claim] "for both are concerned with such things as are..." [The reason]
"There is persuasion through character [Claim]... for we believe fair-minded people..." [Reason]
Claim is normally separated from the reason by "for" or "because"
Reasons normally follow the claim, but it can go both ways. "Claim for the Reason" or "Reasons for the claim".
Example and Sign
A necessary sign (tekmerion) is a thing that follows that demands a prior thing to have occurred.
A contingent sign is a thing that follows that states a prior thing may have, but not necessarily, happened.
Logic/Logos components:
-Enthymeme (most important)
-Signs
-Examples
Non-artistic components of Logic/Logs
-Documents
-Witnesses
-Torture
Types of Rhetoric
1) Deliberative
2) Judicial
3) Demonstrative
Definitions:
Rhetoric - an antistrophos to dialectic (30)
Rhetoric - an ability, in each case to see the available means of persuasion (37) [main def.]
Rhetoric - knowledge of the available means of persuasion and looking at all possible outcomes (266)
Rhetoric - an offshoot of dialectic (39)
Rhetoric is not a product! Rhetoric is a process
Canon of Rhetoric
-Invention
-Arrangement
-Style
-Memory
-Delivery
Dialectic v. Rhetoric
Similarities:
-Each deal with universal questions
-Each deal with questions that do not belong to a specific science or art
-Each can reason on both sides
-Each starts with endoxa (common opinions)
Differences
- In purpose, dialectic tests an argument; rhetoric defends an idea or self.
- In practitioner, dialectic has expert dialecticians; rhetoric is done by ordinary citizens
- In Method, dialectic is Socratic, in rhetoric it is speech
- In issue, dialectic deals with generalities, rhetoric deals with particulars
- In audience, dialectic audience is small, rhetoric audience is large
- In argument, dialectic uses syllogism, rhetoric uses enthymeme
- In proofs, dialectic uses argument, rhetoric uses argument, character and emotions
Dialectic is part of rhetoric, but rhetoric does not always have to use dialectic.
Rhetoric deals with debatable and refutable things.
Rhetoric is a combination of analytic knowledge (dialectic) and knowledge of characters.
Does Aristotle mean pathos in the way we understand psychology?
Rhetoric includes:
1) Knowledge of logic
2) Knowledge of pathos
3) A grasp of constitutional politics
4) a basis of common beliefs
Rhetoric:
-Ability
-Tool
-Needs knowledge on content/subject
Audiences
Rhetoric must consider emotions and values of the audience.
Enthymeme is the foundation of Rhetoric
An enthymeme is to Rhetoric as a syllogism is to logic (dialectic)
Enthymeme is a claim (Aristotle: proposition) and a reason (for/because).
Enthymeme - something in the mind
Enthymemes are based on:
1) Facts (not usual)
2) Theories
3) Cultural Assumptions
Enthymemes are derived from
1) Probability
2) Signs
Enthymeme (aka Rhetorical syllogism)
Structure of an Enthymeme
1) State the claim (topoi)
2) Back it up with reason
Enthymemes are about general and specific things
Contradiction?
Aristotle's three most common general propositions rhetoricians must know"
1) Advantageous and opposite
2) Just and Unjust
3) Honorable and Dishonorable
Dissection of Aristotle's Enthymemes:
"Rhetoric is an antistrophos to dialectic" [The claim] "for both are concerned with such things as are..." [The reason]
"There is persuasion through character [Claim]... for we believe fair-minded people..." [Reason]
Claim is normally separated from the reason by "for" or "because"
Reasons normally follow the claim, but it can go both ways. "Claim for the Reason" or "Reasons for the claim".
Example and Sign
A necessary sign (tekmerion) is a thing that follows that demands a prior thing to have occurred.
A contingent sign is a thing that follows that states a prior thing may have, but not necessarily, happened.
Logic/Logos components:
-Enthymeme (most important)
-Signs
-Examples
Non-artistic components of Logic/Logs
-Documents
-Witnesses
-Torture
Types of Rhetoric
1) Deliberative
2) Judicial
3) Demonstrative
Wednesday, January 3, 2007
Rhetoric Class Notes 1.3.07
(Originally written January 3, 2007 in Book 12)
Class Notes
Background for the emergence of Rhetoric
Greek Era (same as)
1) Homeric Epic
2) Josiah, King of Israel
Political Reforms:
1) Solon's Reforms (594 BC)
- Middle ground between poor and rich
- Four classes of people based on income
2) Cleisthenes (500 BC)
- Established direct involvement in government
3) Pericles
-Citizenship law
-Finanial support for government
Wars (as Foundation)
1) Athens v. Sparta (Peloponnesian)
2) Greece v. Persia (Persian)
Athenian Empire united Greece for trade, culture and rhetoric. Melting pot of culture cultivated rhetoric.
Intellectual Background
Thales - Solar Eclipse
Thales, Anaximander, Miletus - physical world governed by natural law
Protagoras (480-410 BC)
- traveled and taught for a fee
- taught Pericles and Socrates
- moral codes based on social construction
- neither denied nor affirmed the gods
- 'man is the measure of all things'
Rhetoric Beginnings
Gorgias to Athens (427 BC)
War with Corinth (395 - 387 BC)
Isocrates opens school in Athens (393 BC)
Isocrates - "Against the Sophists" (391 BC)
Plato founds the Academy (386 BC)
Aristotle joins the Academy (367 BC)
First Plebeian consul elected (367 BC)
Aristotle (384 - 322 BC)
"On Rhetoric" 360 - 344 BC
Tutored Alexander 335 - 332 BC
"Rhetoric is a combo of analytical knowledge and knowledge of characters"
Definitions of Rhetoric:
1) Antistrophos of dialectic
2) Ability to see the available means of persuasion.
Aristotle takes rhetoric (a knack in Plato) as an academic discipline
Purpose of Rhetoric
1) Duty
2) To give appropriate judgment
3) To become a political science which educates to prudence
Place of Rhetoric in Aristotle's work
4 Branches of the Organon:
1) Dialectic
2) Rhetoric
3) Prior Analytics
4) Posterior Analytics
Main Components
1) Pisteis (Proof)
2) Appeals:
Ethos - arete (excellence), phronosis (good sense) eunoia (good will)
Logos - syllogism (primarily in dialectic), enthymeme
Pathos - Emotions and appearance of character
Three types of Discourse
1) Epideictic - praise and blame
2) Forensic - legal, judicial
3) Deliberative - legislative, policy, future
The Rhetorical Triangle
Speaker - Ethos
Subject - Logos
Audience - Pathos
Text - Grammar
Class Notes
Background for the emergence of Rhetoric
Greek Era (same as)
1) Homeric Epic
2) Josiah, King of Israel
Political Reforms:
1) Solon's Reforms (594 BC)
- Middle ground between poor and rich
- Four classes of people based on income
2) Cleisthenes (500 BC)
- Established direct involvement in government
3) Pericles
-Citizenship law
-Finanial support for government
Wars (as Foundation)
1) Athens v. Sparta (Peloponnesian)
2) Greece v. Persia (Persian)
Athenian Empire united Greece for trade, culture and rhetoric. Melting pot of culture cultivated rhetoric.
Intellectual Background
Thales - Solar Eclipse
Thales, Anaximander, Miletus - physical world governed by natural law
Protagoras (480-410 BC)
- traveled and taught for a fee
- taught Pericles and Socrates
- moral codes based on social construction
- neither denied nor affirmed the gods
- 'man is the measure of all things'
Rhetoric Beginnings
Gorgias to Athens (427 BC)
War with Corinth (395 - 387 BC)
Isocrates opens school in Athens (393 BC)
Isocrates - "Against the Sophists" (391 BC)
Plato founds the Academy (386 BC)
Aristotle joins the Academy (367 BC)
First Plebeian consul elected (367 BC)
Aristotle (384 - 322 BC)
"On Rhetoric" 360 - 344 BC
Tutored Alexander 335 - 332 BC
"Rhetoric is a combo of analytical knowledge and knowledge of characters"
Definitions of Rhetoric:
1) Antistrophos of dialectic
2) Ability to see the available means of persuasion.
Aristotle takes rhetoric (a knack in Plato) as an academic discipline
Purpose of Rhetoric
1) Duty
2) To give appropriate judgment
3) To become a political science which educates to prudence
Place of Rhetoric in Aristotle's work
4 Branches of the Organon:
1) Dialectic
2) Rhetoric
3) Prior Analytics
4) Posterior Analytics
Main Components
1) Pisteis (Proof)
2) Appeals:
Ethos - arete (excellence), phronosis (good sense) eunoia (good will)
Logos - syllogism (primarily in dialectic), enthymeme
Pathos - Emotions and appearance of character
Three types of Discourse
1) Epideictic - praise and blame
2) Forensic - legal, judicial
3) Deliberative - legislative, policy, future
The Rhetorical Triangle
Speaker - Ethos
Subject - Logos
Audience - Pathos
Text - Grammar
Rhetoric Book Notes Ch. 1-4
(Originally written January 3, 2007 in Book 12)
Well, That paper really helped me to get a 'B' in epistemology. But that was last semester. Now, it is J-Term. This will now be the Notebook of ENG 370 "Classical Rhetoric"
On Rhetoric: A theory of Civic Discourse
Aristotle, trans. George A. Kennedy
Oxford University Press
NY, 2007
pg. 27 - 55
Book 1: Pisteis, or the Means of Persuasion in Public Address
BKs I & II deal with the public speaker's art of persuasion through:
1) Presenting one's character as trustworthy
2) Persuasive Arguments
3) Moving the emotions of the audience
This part of Rhetoric has become known as "invention" Aristotle calls it "dianoia" (thought).
BKs I & II appear to be originally linked together, but BK III appears to be a separate work that was added later.
Chapters 1-3: Introduction
Ch. 1 Introduction to Rhetoric for students of Dialectic
Ch. 1 is very Platonic
Dialectic was taught by Aristotle as the art of philosophical disputation.
Topics is Aristotle's textbook of the Dialectic.
Dialectic:
Student 1 - state Thesis "X"
Student 2 - Refute "X" by asking yes/no questions
If student catches student 1 in a contradiction, "X" is refuted.
Dialectic proceeds by question and answer. It is merely proof and refutation.
Logical argument is the only acceptable argument in Dialectic. Rhetoric is broader.
Both dialectic and rhetoric build arguments on commonly held opinions (endoxa) and deal with probability, not logical certainty.
Dialectic examines generalities; rhetoric seeks answers to specific particulars.
BK I's Ch. 1 denies the use of emotional appeals in rhetoric which contradicts BK III. The best explanation of this is (according to Kennedy) Aristotle uses chapter 1 to portrait ideal rhetoric in an ideal society; but, Book III deals with the corrupt, but real society of Athens and the need for emotional appeals in real rhetoric.
"Rhetoric is an anistrophos to dialectic" (Kennedy, 30). [antistrophos = counterpart, correlative, coordinate]
Both are independent of any specific science.
All people share in both to some extent.
People can participate in Rhetoric either accidentally or through an ability acquired by habit. Those acting on the latter are participating in the art [tekhné] of Rhetoric.
"Pisteis are artistic" in rhetoric. [pisteis are proof, means of persuasion]. Aristotle uses pisteis here to relate 'logical proofs'.
Enthymemes is the 'body' of persuasion.
Verbal attacks, pity, emotions are part of the mind (psykhé) that do not appeal to reason.
In persuasion it is imperative to have an introduction [prooemion] and a narrative [diégésis] and other parts to engage the audience.
Artistic method deals with pisteis; pistis (singular form of pisteis) is a sort of demonstration [apodeixis].
Rhetorical apodeis is enthymeme. (Strongest of the pisteis).
Enthymeme is a type of syllogism.
Commonly held opinions = endoxa.
Enthymeme - somehting in the mind, striking thought (Isocrates), "a syllogism from probabilities or signs" (Aristotle).
Enthymeme in Aristotle is differentiated from syllogism in that syllogism deals with logical necessity and absolute truth; whereas, enthymeme deals with probability.
The Usefulness of Rhetoric
Rhetoric is useful because:
1) "The true and the just are by nature stronger than their opposites" (Aristotle)
2) Knowledge needs to be aided by speech in persuading others.
The function [ergon] of rhetoric is to see the available means of persuasion in particular cases, not to persuade.
Proairesis - Deliberate Choice
Ch. 2 Definition of Rhetoric, Pisteis, or the means of persuasion in public address: Paradigms, Enthymemes, and their Sources; Common Topics, Eidé and Idia
Rhetoric is "an ability, in each particular case, to see the available means of persuasion" (37).
Pisteis are either a technic (non-artistic) or entechnic (embodied in art, artistic).
A technic pisteis are proof that are preexisting the speaker's deliver. Entechnic pistes are those provided to the audience by the speaker.
There are three species of pisteis provided through the speech:
1) Those in the character of the speaker [ethos]
2) Those in the disposing of the listener
3) Those in the speech itself [logos]
Character is almost the most authoritative form of persuasion.
Persuasion in the pathos is the art of persuasion via emotional appeal.
Persuasion via showing the truth from whatever is persuasive occurs through the arguments [logoi].
Fair-mindedness = epikikeia
Rhetoric is an offshoot of dialectic and ethical studies (politics).
Rhetoric is partly dialectic. It mirrors dialectic.
Dialectic has the syllogism and the induction [epagoge]. Rhetoric has the enthymeme (syllogism) and the paradeigma (example).
Dialectic syllogism mirrors Rhetoric enthymeme. Dialectic induction mirrors rhetoric paradeigma.
Some rhetorical utterances are paradigmatic (rhetorically inductive), some are enthymematic (rhetorically syllogistic). Some orators are paradigmatic, others are enthymematic. Enthymematic speeches are more exciting and more favorable to audience reaction than paradigmatic ones.
Rhetoric forms enthymemes from things customarily debated.
Enthymemes and paradigms must be drawn from few premises that are not necessarily true.
Enthymemes are derived from probabilities [eikota] and signs [semeia].
Probability = eikos. Probabilities = eikota.
A necessary sign is a tekmerion. Tekmerions are irrefutable, also other signs can be refuted.
Demonstrative - apodeiktikai
The Topics of Syllogisms and Enthymemes
Topos - place (literal meaning)
Topos - forms of arguments (Isocrates)
Topoi - Topos
"Species" of knowledge refers to a specific set of premises unique to a particular science. Topoi are premises common [Koinei] to all.
Ch. 3 The Three Species of Rhetoric
There are three species of rhetoric.
There are three classes of hearers.
A speech consists of three things: a speaker, a subject and an audience.
The objective [telos] of the speech relates to the audience.
A hearer must be either an:
1) Observer [theoros]
2) Judge [Krites]
A judge deals with either post or future events. An observer is concerned with the ability of the speaker.
The three species/genera of rhetoric:
1) Deliberative [symbouleutikon] - is either protseptic (exhortation) or apotreptic (dissuasion)
2) Judicial [dikanikon] - is either accusation [kategoria] or defense [apologia]
3) Demonstrative [epideiktikon] - is either praise [epainos] or blame [psogos]
Deliberative rhetoric deals with the future. Judicial rhetoric deals with the past. Demonstrative rhetoric deals with the present.
The end of deliberative rhetoric is the advantageous (sympheron). The end of judicial rhetoric is the just (dikaion) and the unjust. The end of demonstrative rhetoric is the honorable (salon) and the shameful.
Propositions common to all species of rhetoric:
Koina are the common things in rhetoric. Idia are the particular things in rhetoric.
It is necessary for all rhetoricians to have propositions [protaseis] about possibilities and impossibilities.
It is necessary for all rhetoricians to have propositions about "greater" and "lesser", about generals and specifics.
Chs. 4-15: Idia, or specific topics, in each of the three species of rhetoric.
There are three classes of dialectical propositions:
1) Ethical
2) Physical
3) Logical
Ethical propositions include political.
Physical and logical propositions are of no use to rhetoric. Ethical propositions are widely used.
Chapters 4-8: Deliberative Rhetoric
Chapter 4: Political Topics for Deliberative Rhetoric
Idia - Specifics
Rhetoric as a tool (in Aristotle) includes a practical knowledge of a subject matter it is used in. This is not an exhaustive knowledge though.
Political Rhetoric deals with only the possible good and evil that can come to pass. It doesn't deal with what necessarily exists or what is impossible to exist.
Rhetoric is a combination of analytical knowledge and knowledge of characters.
The most important political rhetoric topics are finances, war and peace, national defense, imports and exports and the framing of laws.
Someone who wishes to engage in deliberative rhetoric on any political topic should have a basic, foundation and practical knowledge of these five categories.
Well, That paper really helped me to get a 'B' in epistemology. But that was last semester. Now, it is J-Term. This will now be the Notebook of ENG 370 "Classical Rhetoric"
On Rhetoric: A theory of Civic Discourse
Aristotle, trans. George A. Kennedy
Oxford University Press
NY, 2007
pg. 27 - 55
Book 1: Pisteis, or the Means of Persuasion in Public Address
BKs I & II deal with the public speaker's art of persuasion through:
1) Presenting one's character as trustworthy
2) Persuasive Arguments
3) Moving the emotions of the audience
This part of Rhetoric has become known as "invention" Aristotle calls it "dianoia" (thought).
BKs I & II appear to be originally linked together, but BK III appears to be a separate work that was added later.
Chapters 1-3: Introduction
Ch. 1 Introduction to Rhetoric for students of Dialectic
Ch. 1 is very Platonic
Dialectic was taught by Aristotle as the art of philosophical disputation.
Topics is Aristotle's textbook of the Dialectic.
Dialectic:
Student 1 - state Thesis "X"
Student 2 - Refute "X" by asking yes/no questions
If student catches student 1 in a contradiction, "X" is refuted.
Dialectic proceeds by question and answer. It is merely proof and refutation.
Logical argument is the only acceptable argument in Dialectic. Rhetoric is broader.
Both dialectic and rhetoric build arguments on commonly held opinions (endoxa) and deal with probability, not logical certainty.
Dialectic examines generalities; rhetoric seeks answers to specific particulars.
BK I's Ch. 1 denies the use of emotional appeals in rhetoric which contradicts BK III. The best explanation of this is (according to Kennedy) Aristotle uses chapter 1 to portrait ideal rhetoric in an ideal society; but, Book III deals with the corrupt, but real society of Athens and the need for emotional appeals in real rhetoric.
"Rhetoric is an anistrophos to dialectic" (Kennedy, 30). [antistrophos = counterpart, correlative, coordinate]
Both are independent of any specific science.
All people share in both to some extent.
People can participate in Rhetoric either accidentally or through an ability acquired by habit. Those acting on the latter are participating in the art [tekhné] of Rhetoric.
"Pisteis are artistic" in rhetoric. [pisteis are proof, means of persuasion]. Aristotle uses pisteis here to relate 'logical proofs'.
Enthymemes is the 'body' of persuasion.
Verbal attacks, pity, emotions are part of the mind (psykhé) that do not appeal to reason.
In persuasion it is imperative to have an introduction [prooemion] and a narrative [diégésis] and other parts to engage the audience.
Artistic method deals with pisteis; pistis (singular form of pisteis) is a sort of demonstration [apodeixis].
Rhetorical apodeis is enthymeme. (Strongest of the pisteis).
Enthymeme is a type of syllogism.
Commonly held opinions = endoxa.
Enthymeme - somehting in the mind, striking thought (Isocrates), "a syllogism from probabilities or signs" (Aristotle).
Enthymeme in Aristotle is differentiated from syllogism in that syllogism deals with logical necessity and absolute truth; whereas, enthymeme deals with probability.
The Usefulness of Rhetoric
Rhetoric is useful because:
1) "The true and the just are by nature stronger than their opposites" (Aristotle)
2) Knowledge needs to be aided by speech in persuading others.
The function [ergon] of rhetoric is to see the available means of persuasion in particular cases, not to persuade.
Proairesis - Deliberate Choice
Ch. 2 Definition of Rhetoric, Pisteis, or the means of persuasion in public address: Paradigms, Enthymemes, and their Sources; Common Topics, Eidé and Idia
Rhetoric is "an ability, in each particular case, to see the available means of persuasion" (37).
Pisteis are either a technic (non-artistic) or entechnic (embodied in art, artistic).
A technic pisteis are proof that are preexisting the speaker's deliver. Entechnic pistes are those provided to the audience by the speaker.
There are three species of pisteis provided through the speech:
1) Those in the character of the speaker [ethos]
2) Those in the disposing of the listener
3) Those in the speech itself [logos]
Character is almost the most authoritative form of persuasion.
Persuasion in the pathos is the art of persuasion via emotional appeal.
Persuasion via showing the truth from whatever is persuasive occurs through the arguments [logoi].
Fair-mindedness = epikikeia
Rhetoric is an offshoot of dialectic and ethical studies (politics).
Rhetoric is partly dialectic. It mirrors dialectic.
Dialectic has the syllogism and the induction [epagoge]. Rhetoric has the enthymeme (syllogism) and the paradeigma (example).
Dialectic syllogism mirrors Rhetoric enthymeme. Dialectic induction mirrors rhetoric paradeigma.
Some rhetorical utterances are paradigmatic (rhetorically inductive), some are enthymematic (rhetorically syllogistic). Some orators are paradigmatic, others are enthymematic. Enthymematic speeches are more exciting and more favorable to audience reaction than paradigmatic ones.
Rhetoric forms enthymemes from things customarily debated.
Enthymemes and paradigms must be drawn from few premises that are not necessarily true.
Enthymemes are derived from probabilities [eikota] and signs [semeia].
Probability = eikos. Probabilities = eikota.
A necessary sign is a tekmerion. Tekmerions are irrefutable, also other signs can be refuted.
Demonstrative - apodeiktikai
The Topics of Syllogisms and Enthymemes
Topos - place (literal meaning)
Topos - forms of arguments (Isocrates)
Topoi - Topos
"Species" of knowledge refers to a specific set of premises unique to a particular science. Topoi are premises common [Koinei] to all.
Ch. 3 The Three Species of Rhetoric
There are three species of rhetoric.
There are three classes of hearers.
A speech consists of three things: a speaker, a subject and an audience.
The objective [telos] of the speech relates to the audience.
A hearer must be either an:
1) Observer [theoros]
2) Judge [Krites]
A judge deals with either post or future events. An observer is concerned with the ability of the speaker.
The three species/genera of rhetoric:
1) Deliberative [symbouleutikon] - is either protseptic (exhortation) or apotreptic (dissuasion)
2) Judicial [dikanikon] - is either accusation [kategoria] or defense [apologia]
3) Demonstrative [epideiktikon] - is either praise [epainos] or blame [psogos]
Deliberative rhetoric deals with the future. Judicial rhetoric deals with the past. Demonstrative rhetoric deals with the present.
The end of deliberative rhetoric is the advantageous (sympheron). The end of judicial rhetoric is the just (dikaion) and the unjust. The end of demonstrative rhetoric is the honorable (salon) and the shameful.
Propositions common to all species of rhetoric:
Koina are the common things in rhetoric. Idia are the particular things in rhetoric.
It is necessary for all rhetoricians to have propositions [protaseis] about possibilities and impossibilities.
It is necessary for all rhetoricians to have propositions about "greater" and "lesser", about generals and specifics.
Chs. 4-15: Idia, or specific topics, in each of the three species of rhetoric.
There are three classes of dialectical propositions:
1) Ethical
2) Physical
3) Logical
Ethical propositions include political.
Physical and logical propositions are of no use to rhetoric. Ethical propositions are widely used.
Chapters 4-8: Deliberative Rhetoric
Chapter 4: Political Topics for Deliberative Rhetoric
Idia - Specifics
Rhetoric as a tool (in Aristotle) includes a practical knowledge of a subject matter it is used in. This is not an exhaustive knowledge though.
Political Rhetoric deals with only the possible good and evil that can come to pass. It doesn't deal with what necessarily exists or what is impossible to exist.
Rhetoric is a combination of analytical knowledge and knowledge of characters.
The most important political rhetoric topics are finances, war and peace, national defense, imports and exports and the framing of laws.
Someone who wishes to engage in deliberative rhetoric on any political topic should have a basic, foundation and practical knowledge of these five categories.
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