Ecclesiastical Reform in the 11th Century

The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell

Ch IX Ecclesiastical Reform in the 11th Century

The level of education rose enormously in the clergy and considerably in the aristocracy during this time. The Normans had kicked out the Saracens from Sicily and curbed the activities of the Scandinavians with their conquests in France and England. Unlike the brief Carolingian renaissance, the gains made in the 11th century had some sticking power.

The reforms were primarily against simony and concubinage.

Simony was a sin, but it also meant that the bishops were selected based on wealth and not merit. And, bishoprics costing a fortune, the newly purchased position was then exploited to recoup the lost income in the purchase.

Clerical celibacy had been admired but was not routine. The imposition of celibacy on the priests made it impossible for a priest to pass Church lands on to his children and further removed the priests from the laity by showing the celibate life of the priest to be greater than the married life of the commonfolk.

The reform of the Church began primarily with monastic reform. The reform of the Papacy was more the work of the Emperor.

Emperor Henry III (1039-1056) deposed the pope Gregory VI, who though a reformer, had acquired the papacy by simony. Henry III would go on to appoint four popes and after the death of Henry III the papacy, which had its moral authority restored by the Emperor declared independence and then superiority over the emperor and two hundred years of tug-a-war ensued.

During the reign of Henry IV the selection of the Pope was codified to essential be a position chosen by the Cardinals, freezing the Emperor out. It was during Henry IV's reign that the investiture crisis began.

The philosophical activity of the 11th century came entirely from monks connected with the reform movement. They including Peter Damian, Berengar of Tours, Lanfranc and Saint Anselm.

Saint Anselm is most famous for the ontological argument, but he also had a foundation in Augustine and Plato. Through neoplatonic arguments he derived another proof for God and proof for Trinity. (Plotinus also had an argument for a trinity, though not one the Christian orthodox could accept).

Anselm, like most of his predecessors were more Platonic in their Christianity. After Aquinas, Christian philosophers became more Aristotelian. Roscelin, a younger contemporary of Anselm, marks the beginning of the Aristotelian bent and scholastic philosophy.

Ecclesiastical Reform in the 11th Century

(Originally written July 23, 2006 in Book 5)

The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell

Chapter IX - Ecclesiastical Reform in the 11th Century

The progress of the 11th century began with monastic reform.

The Church sought to consolidate its power but it had to clean up itself first by ridding themselves of two great evils:
1) Simony
2) Concubinage

Simony was the practice of selling a position in the Church for a sum of money.

Celibacy in the clergy was more for political reasoning then Biblical. Priests who had sons passed Church property onto them. The Church did not like this. Celibacy set men apart from others. For priests to be revered in the highest esteem they necessarily had to be celibate. The Church demanded them to be set apart from the laity. Celibacy was a means to this end.

William the Pious, Duke of Aquitaine, founded the Abbey of Cluny and the Cluniac reform movement in 910 AD.

The Camaldolese Orderwas founded by Romuad and the Camaldolese produced Peter Damian.

Bruno of Cologne founded the Carthusians in 1084.

In 1098 the Cistercian Order was founded. St. Bernard joined them in 1113.

The reform of the Papacy began with a simony Pope, Pope Gregory VI. Gregory VI was deposed for simony by the Holy Roman Emperor Henry III in 1046. Henry III continually deposed popes and appointed new ones. Pope Leo IX was then appointed by Henry III in 1049.

Leo IX was a reformer. He claimed independence from Henry III and the Papacy claimed superiority over the Emperor.

The college of Cardinals was set up to select the Pope, depriving the Romans and the Emperors of power.

Pope Nicholas II played a large part in reducing simony. Nicholas II also fought with the archbishop of Milan, who thought he was independent of the Pope.

Saint Peter Damian was crucial to the Milanese clerics repenting of their simony and pledging allegiance to the Papacy.

Pope Gregory VII became Pope in 1073. He was one of the most eminent Popes of all time. Gregory VII enforced clerical celibacy more than any other previous pope. Gregory VII dealt with the Investiture controversy, excommunicating Emperor Henry IV and thus causing civil war in the feudal Holy Roman Empire.

The 10th century was almost devoid of philosophers except for Pope Sylvester II (999-1003).

The 11th century produced a number of philosophers:
1) Anselm
2) Roscelin
3) Peter Damian
4) Berengar of Tours - a semi rationalist
4) Lanfranc

Anselm came up with the ontological argument for the existence of God. The ontological argument states:
1) God is the greatest possible objet of thought
2) If an object of thought does not exist, another, exactly like it, which does exist is greater.
3) The greatest of all objects of thought must exist. Otherwise another object would exist and be greater.
4) Thus, God exists.

The ontological argument has been rejected by theologians, but has faired better among philosophers. Descartes used an amended formed. Leibniz used it to prove the possibility of God. It underlies the Hegelian system. Bradley used it.

Anselm believed in Platonic ideas. He used Neoplatonic arguments to prove the existence of the Trinity.

Anselm considered reason subordinate to faith.