The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Chapter XXVIII Stoicism
Zeno, the founder of Stoicism was a materialist who combined Cynicism with Heraclitus. Later, Stoicism took on a bit of Platonism and eventually materialism died out.
Stoicism is the least Greek form of philosophy with the earliest Stoics coming from Syria and the later ones being primarily Roman.
Zeno was primarily concerned with virtue and ethics. Everything else was important only in how it pertained to virtue.
Zeno denied the existence of chance. Zeno believed in a determinism that was rigid, but set up by a beneficent creator through natural laws.
"In the life of an individual man, virtue is the sole good; such things as health, happiness,
possessions, are of no account. Since virtue resides in the will, everything really good or bad in a
man's life depends only upon himself. He may become poor, but what of it? He can still be virtuous. A tyrant may put him in prison, but he can still persevere in living in harmony with Nature. He may be sentenced to death, but he can die nobly, like Socrates" (Russell, 254-55).
There is a coldness to Stoicism as not only bad passions are condemned, but all passions.
"The Stoic is not virtuous in order to do good, but does good in order to
be virtuous" (Russell, 256).
"Kant--who resembles them--says that you must be kind to your brother, not because you are fond of him, but because the moral law enjoins kindness; I doubt, however, whether, in private life, he lived down to this precept" (Russell, 256).
Gradually stoicism incorporated other elements and became Platonic in nature under Panaetius (who in turn influenced Cicero). Under Posidonius (circa 135 - 51 BC) the Platonic element was stronger in Stoicism then in the Skeptical theories present at the Academy.
The three Roman Stoics: Seneca, Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius were much more important historically than philosophically.
Seneca turned out to be the tutor of Nero and was forced to commit suicide in A.D. 65. His dying legacy of a virtuous life remained important to his followers and to later Christians.
Epictetus, a slave who flourished between 60 and 100 AD was originally a slave and then served as a minister for the emperors until Domitian banished all philosophers.
Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 121 - 180) was an emperor. His Meditations were a personal journal of Stoic virtue.
Stoicism is a philosophy of a tired age, not a hopeful one. Stoicism suited both Marcus Aurelius and Epictetus because it was a philosophy of survival.
"If we understand that virtue is the only true good, we shall see that no real evil can befall us" (Russell, 263).
"Every man is an actor in a play, in which God has assigned the parts; it is our duty to perform our part worthily, whatever it may be" (Russell, 264).
Aurelius taught that life in harmony with the universe is what was good and one should act accordingly.
Aurelius taught that all men were brothers and that we are to love them even when they do wrong because they only do wrong out of ignorance.
Although Stoics were mostly concerned with ethics, they made great strides in the theory of knowledge as well.
The theory of knowledge avoided Plato's distrust of the perceptions. They concluded that while the perceptions might not be certain, they are probable on the whole and worthy of trust.
The Stoics also believed in innate ideas and principles.
The Stoic notion of the equality of man and the doctrine of natural law, when backed by the weight of Christianity saw the end of despotism in the 17th century.
Showing posts with label Epictetus. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Epictetus. Show all posts
Tuesday, September 24, 2019
Monday, February 18, 2008
Notes on Tolstoy, Introduction to Amiel's Journal (1893)
(Originally Written February 18, 2008 in the Journal)
Part III Introduction to Amiel's Journal (1893)
"A writer is precious and necessary for us only to the extent to which he reveals to us the inner labor of his soul... not the architectural structure in which usually, and I think perhaps always, distorting it, he packs his thoughts and feelings" (Maude, 14).
Amiel's undistinguished teaching career and his works poured into ready made molds (his lecture, treatises, and poems) are dead. But, his journal, which is formless is full of life, wisdom, instruction, and consolation will remain one of the best books ever written like other accidental works left to us by Marcus Aurelius, Pascal and Epictetus.
Pascal states there are three types of people:
1. Those who have found God and serve Him
2. Those who have not found him and are seeking him
3. Those who have not found him and are not seeking him
Tolstoy believes that this second category does not exist because those who are seeking and suffering have found God already. He states that Amiel's journal is a lifelong exposé of seeking God.
The power of Amiel's journal is it never ceases to be a search. He does not end at a truth; it is merely a search for it.
Part III Introduction to Amiel's Journal (1893)
"A writer is precious and necessary for us only to the extent to which he reveals to us the inner labor of his soul... not the architectural structure in which usually, and I think perhaps always, distorting it, he packs his thoughts and feelings" (Maude, 14).
Amiel's undistinguished teaching career and his works poured into ready made molds (his lecture, treatises, and poems) are dead. But, his journal, which is formless is full of life, wisdom, instruction, and consolation will remain one of the best books ever written like other accidental works left to us by Marcus Aurelius, Pascal and Epictetus.
Pascal states there are three types of people:
1. Those who have found God and serve Him
2. Those who have not found him and are seeking him
3. Those who have not found him and are not seeking him
Tolstoy believes that this second category does not exist because those who are seeking and suffering have found God already. He states that Amiel's journal is a lifelong exposé of seeking God.
The power of Amiel's journal is it never ceases to be a search. He does not end at a truth; it is merely a search for it.
Thursday, November 9, 2006
Book Notes - Epictetus
(Originally written November 9, 2006 in Book 11)
Epictetus
Epictetus was a slave in Rome during the reign of Nero.
He got his freedom at some point and taught in Rome until 98 AD. He was expelled with all other philosophers by Emperor Domitian.
Like Socrates, Epictetus never wrote anything but his disciples wrote down his "discourses" and many have survived.
Religious Temperament
He had a Stoic religious tendency.
He maintained that God exists and nothing man could do can be hidden from him.
God provided man with the intellectual faculty.
Man was a "fragment turn from God" according to Epictetus. Every man has a portion of God.
From this Epictetus concluded that man's duty to live up to his high moral duty was because of his kinship with God.
Epictetus held that we ought to accept whatever God gives us.
All men are equally God's creatures; they are all equally members of one community.
Man is to be willing to lose his individuality. He is to sacrifice himself for the sake of the whole if need be.
Epictetus gravitated towards the asocial tendency of the Stoics.
Epictetus preached quietude and religious piety.
Epictetus
Epictetus was a slave in Rome during the reign of Nero.
He got his freedom at some point and taught in Rome until 98 AD. He was expelled with all other philosophers by Emperor Domitian.
Like Socrates, Epictetus never wrote anything but his disciples wrote down his "discourses" and many have survived.
Religious Temperament
He had a Stoic religious tendency.
He maintained that God exists and nothing man could do can be hidden from him.
God provided man with the intellectual faculty.
Man was a "fragment turn from God" according to Epictetus. Every man has a portion of God.
From this Epictetus concluded that man's duty to live up to his high moral duty was because of his kinship with God.
Epictetus held that we ought to accept whatever God gives us.
All men are equally God's creatures; they are all equally members of one community.
Man is to be willing to lose his individuality. He is to sacrifice himself for the sake of the whole if need be.
Epictetus gravitated towards the asocial tendency of the Stoics.
Epictetus preached quietude and religious piety.
Sunday, July 16, 2006
The Roman Empire in Relation to Culture (B)
(Originally written July 16, 2006 in Book 4)
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
The Roman Empire in Relation to Culture (continued)
Rome's direct influence on Greek thought was largely responsible through two men:
1) Polybius (a historian)
2) Panaetius (a Stoic)
Polybius was born in 200 BC in Arcadia. He was Greek who was enslaved in Rome. While in Rome he became friends with Scipio and wrote the History of the Punic Wars in both Greek and Latin.
Panaetius was also a friend of Scipio and while Scipio was alive he spent a lot of time in Rome. After Scipio's death he spent most of his time in Athens as the head of the Stoic school.
Epictetus was a Greek (Stoic) but spent most of his life in Rome.
Plutarch (AD 46 - 120) attempted to reconcile Greek and Rome through his works, especially Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans.
For the most part the Greeks regarded the Romans with fear and contempt. Thought and art declined under Roman rule.
The four major philosophical schools left during the Roman rule were:
1) The Academy
2) The Peripatetics
3) The Epicureans
4) The Stoics
Another Russell attack on God- "The recognized schools of philosophy - The Academy, the Peripatetics, the Epicureans and the Stoics - continued to exist until they were closed by Justinian, from Christian bigotry, in the year AD 529" (Russell, 277).
When Rome first came into contact with the Greeks they became aware of how barbaric the Romans really were.
Young Romans admired the Greek culture after the Punic Wars.
Rome learned the Greek language, architecture and identified their gods with the Greek ones. "Rome was culturally parasitic on Greece" (Russell, 278).
Despite Rome's lack of cultural originality, their vast stabilizing of the known world spread the Greek culture far and wide. Rome 'civilized' the world.
In addition to Rome, the Mohammedans (Arabs) spread Hellenism.
The Arabs preserved Aristotle, while the West mainly focused on Plato.
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
The Roman Empire in Relation to Culture (continued)
Rome's direct influence on Greek thought was largely responsible through two men:
1) Polybius (a historian)
2) Panaetius (a Stoic)
Polybius was born in 200 BC in Arcadia. He was Greek who was enslaved in Rome. While in Rome he became friends with Scipio and wrote the History of the Punic Wars in both Greek and Latin.
Panaetius was also a friend of Scipio and while Scipio was alive he spent a lot of time in Rome. After Scipio's death he spent most of his time in Athens as the head of the Stoic school.
Epictetus was a Greek (Stoic) but spent most of his life in Rome.
Plutarch (AD 46 - 120) attempted to reconcile Greek and Rome through his works, especially Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans.
For the most part the Greeks regarded the Romans with fear and contempt. Thought and art declined under Roman rule.
The four major philosophical schools left during the Roman rule were:
1) The Academy
2) The Peripatetics
3) The Epicureans
4) The Stoics
Another Russell attack on God- "The recognized schools of philosophy - The Academy, the Peripatetics, the Epicureans and the Stoics - continued to exist until they were closed by Justinian, from Christian bigotry, in the year AD 529" (Russell, 277).
When Rome first came into contact with the Greeks they became aware of how barbaric the Romans really were.
Young Romans admired the Greek culture after the Punic Wars.
Rome learned the Greek language, architecture and identified their gods with the Greek ones. "Rome was culturally parasitic on Greece" (Russell, 278).
Despite Rome's lack of cultural originality, their vast stabilizing of the known world spread the Greek culture far and wide. Rome 'civilized' the world.
In addition to Rome, the Mohammedans (Arabs) spread Hellenism.
The Arabs preserved Aristotle, while the West mainly focused on Plato.
Saturday, July 15, 2006
The Stoics
(Originally written July 15, 2006 in Book 4)
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Chapter 28 - Stoicism
Stoicism was founded by Zeno, a contemporary of Epicurus, but the doctrine evolved much more gradually than Epicureanism. Zeno's Stoicism was a fusion of Cynicism and Heraclitus. By the time of Marcus Aurelius (a stoic), it had morphed into a system with Platonic and anti-materialistic elements.
Stoicism was less Greek than any other Greek philosophy. The earliest Stoics were mostly Syrian, the later were mostly Roman.
Zeno was a Phoenician from Cyprus, born in the second half of the 4th century BC.
Stoicism of Zeno formed around Cynicism but adopted some of the Academy's views and looked at Socrates as a saint.
Virtue was ultimately important to Zeno. Metaphysical subtleties were of no use for him.
Zeno did not doubt the senses because he thought that was useless and absurd. Zeno denied chance and nature was determined by strict natural laws.
He believed that everything was cyclical.
God was the soul of the sensible world.
All things possessed some bits of God, the Divine Fire.
Nature was one integrated system of many individual parts.
Free will produced virtue when one acted in accordance with nature.
Physical things were of no merit when concerned to virtue. Virtue can be found in all men, regardless of their physical surroundings.
Not just bad passions are condemned by the Stoic; all passions are.
Sympathy for death was bad. Friendship is of no account. Politics are useful, but unimportant. Nothing matters except virtue.
Zeno condemned the building of temples because there is no virtue in buildings.
He believed in astrology and divination.
Cleanthes of Asso immediately carried on the Stoic torch. He is known for 2 main things:
1) Condemning Aristarchus of Samos for promulgating a heliocentric belief.
2) The "Hymn to Zeus'.
Chrysippus (280-207 BC) followed Cleanthes and systematized Stoicism.
He believed that if a thing was to exist, the opposite necessarily exists. Thus, since good exists, evil necessarily exists.
He held logic to be fundamental.
He held an empirical theory of knowledge based on perception.
Post-Chrysippus, stoicism was altered by two men, Panaetius and Posidonius.
Panaetius introduced a lot of Platonic elements into Stoicism. He abandoned all materialism.
Panaetius befriended Scipio and influenced Cicero. Posidonius taught and further influenced Cicero.
Cicero brought Stoicism to the Romans.
Posidonius was a Syrian Greek and escaped the anarchy of Syria upon the collapse of Seleucid Empire. He moved to Athens.
He traveled extensively in Western Europe, North Africa and saw the heads on pikes on the Barbaric Spanish coast.
He was scientific, an extraordinary astronomer, and a historian of note.
He further combined Stoicism and Platonic elements.
By the way, a cover up of the Mary Magdelene by the Catholic Church is appalling. Obviously she was Jesus' husband. Just look at the Gnostic Gospels for the truth! (sarcasm obviously)
Posidonius believed the soul did not perish with the body (as most Stoics did) but rose into the air. The more virtuous a soul, the higher it rose. Extremely sinful souls were reincarnated.
Te most virtuous souls floated among the stars and helped out the living; thus, his belief in astrology.
Posidonius may have laid the foundation for Gnosticism.
The Copernican theory, not Christianity, finally doomed his philosophy.
The three most important Stoics (historically, not philosophically) were Romans:
1) Seneca - a preacher
2) Epictetus - a slave
3) Marcus Aurelius - an emperor.
Seneca lived from 3 BC - AD 65. He was a politician in Rome, though of Spanish origin. He was banished by the Emperor Claudius but was later recalled to tutor the future Roman Emperor, Nero.
Seneca amassed riches by usury in Roman Britain.
He was accused of treason by Nero and permitted to commit suicide.
He died in a Stoically virtuous way leaving 'the example of a virtuous life to his grieving family'.
Some Church Fathers considered him a Christian. St. Jerome believed he correspond with St. Paul.
Epictetus (AD 60 - 100) was born a slave. He was lame (probably from cruel punishment). He was banished along with all other philosophers by Emperor Domitian.
Marcus Aurelius (AD 121-180) became emperor in 161. He devoted himself to be a Stoic Emperor.
He persecuted Christians (Russell contends as a political necessity) for not bowing to the State religion.
His life and ring were married by horrors: wars, an immoral wife (accused), earthquakes, rebellion, pestilence, etc.
Stoic beliefs proved reasonably consistent, in that virtue is not dependent on outside circumstances. As emperor, Marcus Aurelius and the slave Epictetus held nearly identical philosophical views.
The Stoic ethic fit the hopeless age in which Aurelius lived.
"If we understand that virtue is the only true good, we shall see that no real evil can befall us" (Russell, 263).
All men are sons of God but doomed to death. Stoics go out to death without 'whining' or 'groaning'.
A Stoic is one who is sick yet happy, in trouble yet happy, dying yet happy...
Epictetus hold that one should love his enemies.
"Every man is an actor in a play, in which God has assigned the parts; it is our duty to perform our part worthily, whatever it may be" (Russell, 264).
Marcus Aurelius held that since life is fragile, virtue must always be asserted.
He regards the universe as a closely knit whole and as one living being, one substance, and one soul [pantheism?].
Despite his status as Emperor and the preeminence of the Roman people, he held all men to be brothers.
Stoic ethics and theology contradict on one point. The universe is wholly deterministic, yet man has free will. Then man can do neither harm nor good to another, but the virtuous good will is the sole good.
The Stoics held that these contradictions were of necessity because it was impossible for all men to live up to their rigorous standards. They offered lower standards to those who could not live up to the high ones.
Kant's ethical standards are similar to the Stoics (according to Russell, but I don't see the correlation).
While Stoics concerned themselves mainly in Ethics they advanced progress in two main areas:
1) Theory of knowledge
2) Doctrine of natural law and natural rights
The Stoic theory of knowledge accepted perception in the face of Platonic theory.
King Ptolemy invited a Stoic by the name of Sphaerus to dinner and to embarrass him he gave Sphaerus a wax pomegranate to eat. The king laughed and pointed out the obvious deceptive nature of the senses. Sphaerus fired back that he had felt no certainty of it being real, but figured it unlikely that anything inedible would be served at a royal meal, thus shaming the king.
The Stoic theory of knowledge also included innate ideas and principles.
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Chapter 28 - Stoicism
Stoicism was founded by Zeno, a contemporary of Epicurus, but the doctrine evolved much more gradually than Epicureanism. Zeno's Stoicism was a fusion of Cynicism and Heraclitus. By the time of Marcus Aurelius (a stoic), it had morphed into a system with Platonic and anti-materialistic elements.
Stoicism was less Greek than any other Greek philosophy. The earliest Stoics were mostly Syrian, the later were mostly Roman.
Zeno was a Phoenician from Cyprus, born in the second half of the 4th century BC.
Stoicism of Zeno formed around Cynicism but adopted some of the Academy's views and looked at Socrates as a saint.
Virtue was ultimately important to Zeno. Metaphysical subtleties were of no use for him.
Zeno did not doubt the senses because he thought that was useless and absurd. Zeno denied chance and nature was determined by strict natural laws.
He believed that everything was cyclical.
God was the soul of the sensible world.
All things possessed some bits of God, the Divine Fire.
Nature was one integrated system of many individual parts.
Free will produced virtue when one acted in accordance with nature.
Physical things were of no merit when concerned to virtue. Virtue can be found in all men, regardless of their physical surroundings.
Not just bad passions are condemned by the Stoic; all passions are.
Sympathy for death was bad. Friendship is of no account. Politics are useful, but unimportant. Nothing matters except virtue.
Zeno condemned the building of temples because there is no virtue in buildings.
He believed in astrology and divination.
Cleanthes of Asso immediately carried on the Stoic torch. He is known for 2 main things:
1) Condemning Aristarchus of Samos for promulgating a heliocentric belief.
2) The "Hymn to Zeus'.
Chrysippus (280-207 BC) followed Cleanthes and systematized Stoicism.
He believed that if a thing was to exist, the opposite necessarily exists. Thus, since good exists, evil necessarily exists.
He held logic to be fundamental.
He held an empirical theory of knowledge based on perception.
Post-Chrysippus, stoicism was altered by two men, Panaetius and Posidonius.
Panaetius introduced a lot of Platonic elements into Stoicism. He abandoned all materialism.
Panaetius befriended Scipio and influenced Cicero. Posidonius taught and further influenced Cicero.
Cicero brought Stoicism to the Romans.
Posidonius was a Syrian Greek and escaped the anarchy of Syria upon the collapse of Seleucid Empire. He moved to Athens.
He traveled extensively in Western Europe, North Africa and saw the heads on pikes on the Barbaric Spanish coast.
He was scientific, an extraordinary astronomer, and a historian of note.
He further combined Stoicism and Platonic elements.
By the way, a cover up of the Mary Magdelene by the Catholic Church is appalling. Obviously she was Jesus' husband. Just look at the Gnostic Gospels for the truth! (sarcasm obviously)
Posidonius believed the soul did not perish with the body (as most Stoics did) but rose into the air. The more virtuous a soul, the higher it rose. Extremely sinful souls were reincarnated.
Te most virtuous souls floated among the stars and helped out the living; thus, his belief in astrology.
Posidonius may have laid the foundation for Gnosticism.
The Copernican theory, not Christianity, finally doomed his philosophy.
The three most important Stoics (historically, not philosophically) were Romans:
1) Seneca - a preacher
2) Epictetus - a slave
3) Marcus Aurelius - an emperor.
Seneca lived from 3 BC - AD 65. He was a politician in Rome, though of Spanish origin. He was banished by the Emperor Claudius but was later recalled to tutor the future Roman Emperor, Nero.
Seneca amassed riches by usury in Roman Britain.
He was accused of treason by Nero and permitted to commit suicide.
He died in a Stoically virtuous way leaving 'the example of a virtuous life to his grieving family'.
Some Church Fathers considered him a Christian. St. Jerome believed he correspond with St. Paul.
Epictetus (AD 60 - 100) was born a slave. He was lame (probably from cruel punishment). He was banished along with all other philosophers by Emperor Domitian.
Marcus Aurelius (AD 121-180) became emperor in 161. He devoted himself to be a Stoic Emperor.
He persecuted Christians (Russell contends as a political necessity) for not bowing to the State religion.
His life and ring were married by horrors: wars, an immoral wife (accused), earthquakes, rebellion, pestilence, etc.
Stoic beliefs proved reasonably consistent, in that virtue is not dependent on outside circumstances. As emperor, Marcus Aurelius and the slave Epictetus held nearly identical philosophical views.
The Stoic ethic fit the hopeless age in which Aurelius lived.
"If we understand that virtue is the only true good, we shall see that no real evil can befall us" (Russell, 263).
All men are sons of God but doomed to death. Stoics go out to death without 'whining' or 'groaning'.
A Stoic is one who is sick yet happy, in trouble yet happy, dying yet happy...
Epictetus hold that one should love his enemies.
"Every man is an actor in a play, in which God has assigned the parts; it is our duty to perform our part worthily, whatever it may be" (Russell, 264).
Marcus Aurelius held that since life is fragile, virtue must always be asserted.
He regards the universe as a closely knit whole and as one living being, one substance, and one soul [pantheism?].
Despite his status as Emperor and the preeminence of the Roman people, he held all men to be brothers.
Stoic ethics and theology contradict on one point. The universe is wholly deterministic, yet man has free will. Then man can do neither harm nor good to another, but the virtuous good will is the sole good.
The Stoics held that these contradictions were of necessity because it was impossible for all men to live up to their rigorous standards. They offered lower standards to those who could not live up to the high ones.
Kant's ethical standards are similar to the Stoics (according to Russell, but I don't see the correlation).
While Stoics concerned themselves mainly in Ethics they advanced progress in two main areas:
1) Theory of knowledge
2) Doctrine of natural law and natural rights
The Stoic theory of knowledge accepted perception in the face of Platonic theory.
King Ptolemy invited a Stoic by the name of Sphaerus to dinner and to embarrass him he gave Sphaerus a wax pomegranate to eat. The king laughed and pointed out the obvious deceptive nature of the senses. Sphaerus fired back that he had felt no certainty of it being real, but figured it unlikely that anything inedible would be served at a royal meal, thus shaming the king.
The Stoic theory of knowledge also included innate ideas and principles.
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