The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Ch. XI The Twelfth Century
Let me start by saying that I find the word, "Twelfth" to be one of the strangest in the English language. It takes a lot of concentration for me to say it without sounding a lot younger than I was on my twelfth birthday.
Four aspects of the 12th century that are especially interesting
1) The continued conflict of empire and papacy
2) The rise of the Lombard cities
3) The Crusades
4) The growth of scholasticism
The papacy continued to grow stronger in the 12th century, generally defeating the emperor and the kings of England and France and also having more strength over bishops, who were on the whole, more virtuous than prior to the reforms of the 11th.
The Italian, Lomabard cities of Northern Italy were able to fight off the Emperor. Their independence allowed the papacy to grow stronger as well as there was a buffer between Rome and the Germans.
The power of the popes was increased by the religious zeal and propaganda of the Crusades.
The first scholastic philosopher was Roscelin, born around 1050. He disappeared around 1120.
Abelard is a more well known scholastic whose writings have survived more in tact than the barely knowable Roscelin.
Abelard's most famous works, "Yes and No" show he loved disputation itself as he gave dialectical arguments for and against a variety of topics. His works being regarded as heretical might have arisen from his love of disputation as he was generally hostile to a lot of other thinkers. His lapses into actual heretical doctrine were fixed in his lifetime.
In addition to the rise of scholasticism there was a rise in mystical expressions as evident by the rise of Bernard of Clairvaux.
"The whole of early scholasticism may be viewed, politically, as an offshoot of the Church's struggle for power" (Russell, 441). The earliest scholastics were primarily French, which the papacy used as a counterbalance to the power of the Emperor.
Showing posts with label Papal History. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Papal History. Show all posts
Saturday, September 28, 2019
Thursday, September 26, 2019
The Papacy in the Dark Ages
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Chapter VII The Papacy in the Dark Ages
What the popes from 600 to 1000 did are vital to understanding the relation of Church and State during the Medieval period.
The western part of the church deferred to the Pope. The patriarchs in the east however were not willing to put up with papal authority. The emperor would sometimes favor the pope when he got into a tight spot with the patriarch, but the patriarchs generally acquiesced to the authority of the emperor.
The Pope's ties to Byzantine Emperors was severed when Pope Stephen III, in 754, made a deal with Pepin to replace the Merovingian king in France. Pepin got control of the French crown and the Pope got political power over much of what used to be Byzantine Italy.
The Papal break with the Byzantine Emperor allowed for the west and the east Church to develop completely differently. In the West the Pope became the ultimate authority, even higher than secular kings. In the East, the Emperor remained the ultimate seat of power.
The basis of secular power the Medieval Popes built on was a forgery called the "Donation of Constantine". It stated that when Constantine built New Rome, power over old Rome and Italy was transferred to the Pope.
The defeat of the Lombards was slow and took the emergence of Charlemagne to complete. In AD 800 on Christmas day, Charlemagne was crowned emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.
The relationship between pope and holy roman emperor was a rocky one that couldn't be avoided because the two were mutually dependent. The popes needed the military muscle of the would be emperor and the would be emperor required the pope to crown him. This made for an uneasy relationship.
"Charlemagne was a vigorous barbarian, politically in alliance with the Church, but not unduly
burdened with personal piety. He could not read or write, but he inaugurated a literary
renaissance. He was dissolute in his life, and unduly fond of his daughters, but he did all in his
power to promote holy living among his subjects." (Russell, 393).
Only the theories inaugurated during the reign of Charlemagne survived him. His line turned out to be a bit of a paper tiger.
Germany was converted mainly under St. Boniface (680 - 754). It is owing to his missionary work in Germany that the converts were papal supporters. Had they been more aligned to the Irish it would have been very different as the Irish had some autonomy from Rome.
The collapse of the Carolingian power after Charlemagne was seen as an opportunity for the papacy and the popes took more power. Pope Nicholas I (858 - 867) took the power of the pope to new heights as he battled with virtually everyone and was victorious.
The church had power over the kings because they controlled who could get married and how a marriage could be dissolved. Without the church's backing succession crisis and dynastic struggles were sure to follow.
Nicholas I even did battle with the Emperor Michael III over the deposing of Ignatius, patriarch of Constantinople. Nicholas was victorious as Ignatius was restored after the emperor was murdered. But, in the long run when Ignatius passed away the schism between East and West grew broader.
The papacy was dominated by the Roman aristocracy in the 10th century leading to bad and morally corrupt popes. Their corruption saw them lose all power in the east and they struggled to maintain control over the bishops north of the Alps.
As 1000 dawned the lowest point of European Christendom seems to have passed. The Church would continue to struggle with rulers and priests who were worldly, but reform movements, often beginning in monastic circles would occasionally correct the Church's direction.
After 1000 the migrations of barbarians also seemed to stop for a bit in the west. Especially important was the Norman conquest of Sicily away from the Saracens and the Norman conquest of England away from the Danes.
Bertrand Russell
Chapter VII The Papacy in the Dark Ages
What the popes from 600 to 1000 did are vital to understanding the relation of Church and State during the Medieval period.
The western part of the church deferred to the Pope. The patriarchs in the east however were not willing to put up with papal authority. The emperor would sometimes favor the pope when he got into a tight spot with the patriarch, but the patriarchs generally acquiesced to the authority of the emperor.
The Pope's ties to Byzantine Emperors was severed when Pope Stephen III, in 754, made a deal with Pepin to replace the Merovingian king in France. Pepin got control of the French crown and the Pope got political power over much of what used to be Byzantine Italy.
The Papal break with the Byzantine Emperor allowed for the west and the east Church to develop completely differently. In the West the Pope became the ultimate authority, even higher than secular kings. In the East, the Emperor remained the ultimate seat of power.
The basis of secular power the Medieval Popes built on was a forgery called the "Donation of Constantine". It stated that when Constantine built New Rome, power over old Rome and Italy was transferred to the Pope.
The defeat of the Lombards was slow and took the emergence of Charlemagne to complete. In AD 800 on Christmas day, Charlemagne was crowned emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.
The relationship between pope and holy roman emperor was a rocky one that couldn't be avoided because the two were mutually dependent. The popes needed the military muscle of the would be emperor and the would be emperor required the pope to crown him. This made for an uneasy relationship.
"Charlemagne was a vigorous barbarian, politically in alliance with the Church, but not unduly
burdened with personal piety. He could not read or write, but he inaugurated a literary
renaissance. He was dissolute in his life, and unduly fond of his daughters, but he did all in his
power to promote holy living among his subjects." (Russell, 393).
Only the theories inaugurated during the reign of Charlemagne survived him. His line turned out to be a bit of a paper tiger.
Germany was converted mainly under St. Boniface (680 - 754). It is owing to his missionary work in Germany that the converts were papal supporters. Had they been more aligned to the Irish it would have been very different as the Irish had some autonomy from Rome.
The collapse of the Carolingian power after Charlemagne was seen as an opportunity for the papacy and the popes took more power. Pope Nicholas I (858 - 867) took the power of the pope to new heights as he battled with virtually everyone and was victorious.
The church had power over the kings because they controlled who could get married and how a marriage could be dissolved. Without the church's backing succession crisis and dynastic struggles were sure to follow.
Nicholas I even did battle with the Emperor Michael III over the deposing of Ignatius, patriarch of Constantinople. Nicholas was victorious as Ignatius was restored after the emperor was murdered. But, in the long run when Ignatius passed away the schism between East and West grew broader.
The papacy was dominated by the Roman aristocracy in the 10th century leading to bad and morally corrupt popes. Their corruption saw them lose all power in the east and they struggled to maintain control over the bishops north of the Alps.
As 1000 dawned the lowest point of European Christendom seems to have passed. The Church would continue to struggle with rulers and priests who were worldly, but reform movements, often beginning in monastic circles would occasionally correct the Church's direction.
After 1000 the migrations of barbarians also seemed to stop for a bit in the west. Especially important was the Norman conquest of Sicily away from the Saracens and the Norman conquest of England away from the Danes.
Monday, September 23, 2019
The Spine of Medieval History
I think I'd like to do a really big book or podcast or something on the Medieval History of Europe. I keep dancing around the topic without knowing where to wade into the waters. I'm going to finish The History of Western Philosophy and the other Jones philosophy book. That will give me some of the framework for the intellectual structure on which the Middle Ages was built, but my primary focus to start I think will be the papacy. I figure that's the spine of Europe in the Middle Ages and everything gets back to Rome anyway. I think there's a figure of speech about Rome and roads that might be fitting here, but I'll leave the cliches for the final product.
Thursday, August 17, 2006
Italian Renaissance - Russell
(Originally written August 17, 2006 in Book 7)
Well, I haven't delved into Russell's book in about two and a half weeks. It's time to get back to the basics.
Stress. What a common feeling these days.
"The Italian Renaissance"
Florence was the most cultured city in the civilized world at the time.
Florence was divided into three conflicting classes:
1) The Nobles (mainly Ghibellines)
2) The rich merchants (Guelf)
3) The small men (Guelf)
The Guelf defeated the Ghibellines in 1266.
In the 14th century the small men over powered the rich merchants.
The conflict resulted in Democracy, but the Medici family ultimately took control of Florence.
Cosimo de Medici (1389-1464) was the first of the family to dominate Florence uncontestedly.
Lorenzo the Magnificent (Cosimo's grandson) reigned from 1469-1492.
Lorenzo's son, Pietro was expelled in 1494 and a puritan sort of revival lasted in Florence until the Medici were restored in 1512.
Pope Leo X was elected in 1513. He was one of Lorenzo's sons.
The Medici family governed Florence until 1737 under the title of Grand Dukes of Tuscany.
The temporal power of the Pope increased dramatically during the Renaissance. The increase of temporal power robbed the Papacy of its spiritual authority.
Italy was dedicated to culture, but not to morality during the Renaissance.
Pope Nicholas V (1447-1455) was the first humanist Pope.
Humanism began to replace piety and orthodoxy until the sack of Rome in 1527.
Pope Leo X (1513-1521) marked a return to spiritual reformation in the Papacy. It was needed after the world popes of the Renaissance.
Naples and Milan were constantly subject to invasion by the French but were defeated by Spanish troops. Spain was closely allied with the Pope.
The Reformation, Counter-Reformation and the sack of Rome by a Protestant army in 1527 put the Italian Renaissance to an end.
The Renaissance was not a time of great philosophical growth.
The Renaissance did set up the great philosophical advance of the 17th century with two things:
1) A real interest in Plato
2) A choice between Aristotelian Scholasticism and Platonism. It broke down the rigid scholastic system.
The humanist movement was too focused on rediscovering ancient wisdom to produce any original philosophy.
The humanists disliked the way the world popes of the renaissance defiled the Church, but were too involved in the same pope's courts to initiate reform.
"The evils of papal corruption were obvious, but nothing was done about them" (Russell, 503).
Morals were low in this time, but architecture, painting and poetry prospered. Leonardo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli were produced in this time.
Well, I haven't delved into Russell's book in about two and a half weeks. It's time to get back to the basics.
Stress. What a common feeling these days.
"The Italian Renaissance"
Florence was the most cultured city in the civilized world at the time.
Florence was divided into three conflicting classes:
1) The Nobles (mainly Ghibellines)
2) The rich merchants (Guelf)
3) The small men (Guelf)
The Guelf defeated the Ghibellines in 1266.
In the 14th century the small men over powered the rich merchants.
The conflict resulted in Democracy, but the Medici family ultimately took control of Florence.
Cosimo de Medici (1389-1464) was the first of the family to dominate Florence uncontestedly.
Lorenzo the Magnificent (Cosimo's grandson) reigned from 1469-1492.
Lorenzo's son, Pietro was expelled in 1494 and a puritan sort of revival lasted in Florence until the Medici were restored in 1512.
Pope Leo X was elected in 1513. He was one of Lorenzo's sons.
The Medici family governed Florence until 1737 under the title of Grand Dukes of Tuscany.
The temporal power of the Pope increased dramatically during the Renaissance. The increase of temporal power robbed the Papacy of its spiritual authority.
Italy was dedicated to culture, but not to morality during the Renaissance.
Pope Nicholas V (1447-1455) was the first humanist Pope.
Humanism began to replace piety and orthodoxy until the sack of Rome in 1527.
Pope Leo X (1513-1521) marked a return to spiritual reformation in the Papacy. It was needed after the world popes of the Renaissance.
Naples and Milan were constantly subject to invasion by the French but were defeated by Spanish troops. Spain was closely allied with the Pope.
The Reformation, Counter-Reformation and the sack of Rome by a Protestant army in 1527 put the Italian Renaissance to an end.
The Renaissance was not a time of great philosophical growth.
The Renaissance did set up the great philosophical advance of the 17th century with two things:
1) A real interest in Plato
2) A choice between Aristotelian Scholasticism and Platonism. It broke down the rigid scholastic system.
The humanist movement was too focused on rediscovering ancient wisdom to produce any original philosophy.
The humanists disliked the way the world popes of the renaissance defiled the Church, but were too involved in the same pope's courts to initiate reform.
"The evils of papal corruption were obvious, but nothing was done about them" (Russell, 503).
Morals were low in this time, but architecture, painting and poetry prospered. Leonardo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli were produced in this time.
Saturday, July 29, 2006
The 13th Century
(Originally written July 29, 2006 in Book 5)
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Chapter XII - The 13th Century
The great men of the 13th century were:
1) Innocent III
2) St. Francis
3) Frederick II
4) Thomas Aquinas
Pope Innocent III reigned from 1198-1216. Innocent III was a shrewd politician and assured Papal supremacy in Sicily, Portugal and Aragon. After resistance, King John conceded England under Papal supremacy.
He destroyed the Albigenses, a heretical group in southern France. He "rooted out heresy, happiness, and culture from southern France" (Russell, 442).
He had Emperor Otto deposed by the German people.
"Innocent III was the first great pope in whom there was no element of sanctity" (Russell, 443).
He codified Canon Law, increasing the power of the Curia.
Frederick II became Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire through Innocent's endorsement. Innocent III would die before Frederick II assumed the position of a formidable antagonist to the Church.
Frederick II was the son of Henry IV and Constance (heir to the Sicilian throne). His childhood was marred with Sicilian wars with Muslims, Germans, Pisans, and Genoese.
The culture of Sicily was a combination of Arabic, Italian, Greek, Byzantine and German cultures.
Frederick II spoke six languages fluently and wittily. He was familiar with Arabic philosophy. He was a Hohenstaufen and could thus be considered German. He was culturally akin to Italians however.
Frederick II's problems with the papacy came when he refused to go on crusade. He was excommunicated later by Pope Gregory IX for not going on crusades and waging war in Lombardy.
He married the daughter of the King of Jerusalem and after the king's death calls himself the king of Jerusalem, infuriating the Pope. He integrated Muslims back into Jerusalem, thus further infuriating the Pope.
Eventually peace was restored between Emperor and Pope in 1230.
He systematized the laws of Sicily (where he was also king).
He founded an important university at Naples.
He freed up trade.
He was once again excommunicated in 1237 for waging war against the Lombards.
His successors after his death in 1250 were not as powerful and the Papacy absorbed power and Italy was left divided.
The heresies of the 13th century are important to study:
The Carthi or Albigenses were the largest sect of heresy at the time. They existed primarily in Northern Italy and Southern France. The Carthi were dualists. They regarded the Old Testament God as wicked. They regarded matter as evil. They believed that virtuous men had no resurrection of the body. They believed that the wicked would suffer transmigration into the bodies of animals. For this they were vegetarians, even abstaining from eggs, cheese, and milk. They ate fish because they did not think that fish reproduced sexually. They despised sex, even inside of marriage. They did not object to suicide. They interpreted the New Testament entirely literally. One who was persecuted offered his defense by claiming that he ate meat, lied and swore like any other good Catholic.
The genealogy of the Carthi is interesting. Carthi (from) Bogomiles (in Bulgaria) - a fusion of Manichaeans and Paulicians. The Manichaeans were founded by Mani and once had Augustine as a proponent.
The Paulicians were followers of Marcion. They were an Armenian sect. They rejected:
1) Infant baptism
2) Purgatory
3) The invocation of the saints
4) The Trinity
5) The Jewish elements of Christianity
The other important heresy of the 13th century were the Waldenses. They were followers of Peter Waldo.
Peter Waldo founded the "Poor Men of Lyons". They were originally papally sanctioned, but were condemned for condemning immorality in the clergy too vocally. They then split from the church.
They existed in Lombardy and Bohemia, eventually paving the way for Jan Hus. They still exist today in the Alpines and in the US.
Heresy was combatted by the Pope in founding the Inquisition in 1233 by Pope Gregory IX.
The Inquisition was mainly performed by the Dominican and Franciscans.
The Church was in danger of a revolt in the 13th century, but was saved by mendicant orders.
St. Francis of Assisi was born around 1181 and died in 1226. He was well-to-do, but later devoted himself to poverty, despite furious family members. Pope Innocent III recognized St. Francis' followers as an order around 1210. St. Francis was one of the most lovable men in History and a saint among saints. But after his death the Franciscans fell into a trap.
"If Satan existed, the future of the order founded by Saint Francis would afford him the most exquisite gratification" (Russell, 450). Linehan - this is an off-hand remark that is completely unnecessary to the conversation. It is another cheap shot by Russell.
The Franciscans became another wealthy order in the Church hierarchy after Francis' death. They took an active role in the Inquisition and suppression of free thought.
Saint Dominic (1170 - 1221) devoted himself to combatting heresy. He founded his order in 1215.
The Dominicans were even more active in the Inquisition. They were devoted to learning. Dominicans provided two great philosophers intent on reconciling Aristotle to Christ:
1) Albertus Magnus
2) Thomas Aquinas
The Franciscans produced three great philosophers:
1) Roger Bacon
2) Duns Scotus
3) William of Occam
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Chapter XII - The 13th Century
The great men of the 13th century were:
1) Innocent III
2) St. Francis
3) Frederick II
4) Thomas Aquinas
Pope Innocent III reigned from 1198-1216. Innocent III was a shrewd politician and assured Papal supremacy in Sicily, Portugal and Aragon. After resistance, King John conceded England under Papal supremacy.
He destroyed the Albigenses, a heretical group in southern France. He "rooted out heresy, happiness, and culture from southern France" (Russell, 442).
He had Emperor Otto deposed by the German people.
"Innocent III was the first great pope in whom there was no element of sanctity" (Russell, 443).
He codified Canon Law, increasing the power of the Curia.
Frederick II became Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire through Innocent's endorsement. Innocent III would die before Frederick II assumed the position of a formidable antagonist to the Church.
Frederick II was the son of Henry IV and Constance (heir to the Sicilian throne). His childhood was marred with Sicilian wars with Muslims, Germans, Pisans, and Genoese.
The culture of Sicily was a combination of Arabic, Italian, Greek, Byzantine and German cultures.
Frederick II spoke six languages fluently and wittily. He was familiar with Arabic philosophy. He was a Hohenstaufen and could thus be considered German. He was culturally akin to Italians however.
Frederick II's problems with the papacy came when he refused to go on crusade. He was excommunicated later by Pope Gregory IX for not going on crusades and waging war in Lombardy.
He married the daughter of the King of Jerusalem and after the king's death calls himself the king of Jerusalem, infuriating the Pope. He integrated Muslims back into Jerusalem, thus further infuriating the Pope.
Eventually peace was restored between Emperor and Pope in 1230.
He systematized the laws of Sicily (where he was also king).
He founded an important university at Naples.
He freed up trade.
He was once again excommunicated in 1237 for waging war against the Lombards.
His successors after his death in 1250 were not as powerful and the Papacy absorbed power and Italy was left divided.
The heresies of the 13th century are important to study:
The Carthi or Albigenses were the largest sect of heresy at the time. They existed primarily in Northern Italy and Southern France. The Carthi were dualists. They regarded the Old Testament God as wicked. They regarded matter as evil. They believed that virtuous men had no resurrection of the body. They believed that the wicked would suffer transmigration into the bodies of animals. For this they were vegetarians, even abstaining from eggs, cheese, and milk. They ate fish because they did not think that fish reproduced sexually. They despised sex, even inside of marriage. They did not object to suicide. They interpreted the New Testament entirely literally. One who was persecuted offered his defense by claiming that he ate meat, lied and swore like any other good Catholic.
The genealogy of the Carthi is interesting. Carthi (from) Bogomiles (in Bulgaria) - a fusion of Manichaeans and Paulicians. The Manichaeans were founded by Mani and once had Augustine as a proponent.
The Paulicians were followers of Marcion. They were an Armenian sect. They rejected:
1) Infant baptism
2) Purgatory
3) The invocation of the saints
4) The Trinity
5) The Jewish elements of Christianity
The other important heresy of the 13th century were the Waldenses. They were followers of Peter Waldo.
Peter Waldo founded the "Poor Men of Lyons". They were originally papally sanctioned, but were condemned for condemning immorality in the clergy too vocally. They then split from the church.
They existed in Lombardy and Bohemia, eventually paving the way for Jan Hus. They still exist today in the Alpines and in the US.
Heresy was combatted by the Pope in founding the Inquisition in 1233 by Pope Gregory IX.
The Inquisition was mainly performed by the Dominican and Franciscans.
The Church was in danger of a revolt in the 13th century, but was saved by mendicant orders.
St. Francis of Assisi was born around 1181 and died in 1226. He was well-to-do, but later devoted himself to poverty, despite furious family members. Pope Innocent III recognized St. Francis' followers as an order around 1210. St. Francis was one of the most lovable men in History and a saint among saints. But after his death the Franciscans fell into a trap.
"If Satan existed, the future of the order founded by Saint Francis would afford him the most exquisite gratification" (Russell, 450). Linehan - this is an off-hand remark that is completely unnecessary to the conversation. It is another cheap shot by Russell.
The Franciscans became another wealthy order in the Church hierarchy after Francis' death. They took an active role in the Inquisition and suppression of free thought.
Saint Dominic (1170 - 1221) devoted himself to combatting heresy. He founded his order in 1215.
The Dominicans were even more active in the Inquisition. They were devoted to learning. Dominicans provided two great philosophers intent on reconciling Aristotle to Christ:
1) Albertus Magnus
2) Thomas Aquinas
The Franciscans produced three great philosophers:
1) Roger Bacon
2) Duns Scotus
3) William of Occam
The 12th Century (C)
(Originally written July 29, 2006 in Book 5)
Roscelin recanted the heresy at Rheims then fled to England. While in England he attacked Anselm, then fled to Rome.
Roscelin's writings are all lost except for a letter to Abelard on the Trinity. Roscelin mocks Abelard in the letter.
Ueberweg describes Roscelin as not a very nice man.
Roscelin's teachings are known through the writings of Abelard and Anselm.
Anselm states that Roscelin believed universals are "breath of voice" or that they physically occur when we speak them. Russell contends that Roscelin would not have believed something so foolish. Anselm states that Roscelin also believed man is not a unity, but a collection under a common name. Anselm stated that Roscelin believed reality is what is sensible. Roscelin believed (according to Anselm) that a whole is merely a word, but reality rests in the parts of a whole. He was led by this view to extreme atomism and troubles in dealing with the Trinity.
He held that the Godhead was three distinct substances and thus there are three Gods. He stated this because if they are one substance then all three had been incarnate in Jesus Christ. He couldn't accept that. But this is what he recanted in Rheims.
Abelard was Roselyn's pupil. He was born near Nantes in 1079. He first studied under the realist William of Champeaux in Paris. He taught at the Paris cathedral school where he argued against William's realism and compelled his former teacher to change his views. He left Paris to study theology under Anselm of Leon then returned to Paris in 1113. Upon returning he became widely popular as a teacher and became the lover of Heloïse, niece of Canon Fulbert. Canon Fulbert castrated him and he joined the monastery at St. Denis.
Abelard was vain, disputatious and tempts. After being castrated he was angry and humiliated. (Linehan - what a shock!)
He was condemned for an unorthodox book on the Trinity in 1121.
He then became the abbot of Saint Gildas in Brittany for four years. He hated it because he saw the monks as uncivilized.
In 1141 he was again condemned at the insistence of St. Bernard. He retired to Cluny and died in 1142.
Abelard's most famous book is "Yes and No". It is a dialectical argument for and against many theses. It did not however produce any conclusions.
Abelard held that, apart from Scriptures, dialectic is the sole road to truth.
He considered logic to be the chief science.
He is best known for logic and theory of knowledge.
Universals - "what can be predicated of many different things" (Russell, 430).
Abelard held that we do not predicate a thing, but only a word. He was a nomalist in this sense.
He fought realism.
He regards Platonic Ideas as the pattern of creation in the mind of God.
St. Bernard charged him without fully understanding Abelard's teachings. The heresies Bernard charged him with are:
1) Treating the Trinity like an Arian
2) Treating grace like a Pelagian
3) Treating the Person of Christ like a Nestorian
4) Being a heathen by making Plato to be a Christian
5) Destroying Christianity by maintaining that God can be understood through reason alone.
In all reality it was his hostile disposition towards clergy that caused his heretical label and not his teachings.
Abelard was more dialectical than any others at his time.
1) The school of Chartres was a humanistic movement
2) Abelard of Bath translated Euclid due to a renaissance of mathematical learning
3) There was a strong mystical movement headed by St. Bernard.
St. Bernard was not an intellectualist, but was extremely influential.
1) His father was a knight in the first Crusade
2) He was a Cistercian monk
3) He was the abbot at Clairvaux
4) He was influential in ecclesiastical politics
5) He fought antipopes
6) he combatted heresy in Northern Italy and Southern France
7) He brought philosophers down with the weight of orthodoxy
8) He set into motion the second Crusade
"Although a politician and a bigot, he was a man of genuinely religious temperament" (Russel, 439).
Bernard's reverence of the Papacy increased the power of the Pope.
Roscelin recanted the heresy at Rheims then fled to England. While in England he attacked Anselm, then fled to Rome.
Roscelin's writings are all lost except for a letter to Abelard on the Trinity. Roscelin mocks Abelard in the letter.
Ueberweg describes Roscelin as not a very nice man.
Roscelin's teachings are known through the writings of Abelard and Anselm.
Anselm states that Roscelin believed universals are "breath of voice" or that they physically occur when we speak them. Russell contends that Roscelin would not have believed something so foolish. Anselm states that Roscelin also believed man is not a unity, but a collection under a common name. Anselm stated that Roscelin believed reality is what is sensible. Roscelin believed (according to Anselm) that a whole is merely a word, but reality rests in the parts of a whole. He was led by this view to extreme atomism and troubles in dealing with the Trinity.
He held that the Godhead was three distinct substances and thus there are three Gods. He stated this because if they are one substance then all three had been incarnate in Jesus Christ. He couldn't accept that. But this is what he recanted in Rheims.
Abelard was Roselyn's pupil. He was born near Nantes in 1079. He first studied under the realist William of Champeaux in Paris. He taught at the Paris cathedral school where he argued against William's realism and compelled his former teacher to change his views. He left Paris to study theology under Anselm of Leon then returned to Paris in 1113. Upon returning he became widely popular as a teacher and became the lover of Heloïse, niece of Canon Fulbert. Canon Fulbert castrated him and he joined the monastery at St. Denis.
Abelard was vain, disputatious and tempts. After being castrated he was angry and humiliated. (Linehan - what a shock!)
He was condemned for an unorthodox book on the Trinity in 1121.
He then became the abbot of Saint Gildas in Brittany for four years. He hated it because he saw the monks as uncivilized.
In 1141 he was again condemned at the insistence of St. Bernard. He retired to Cluny and died in 1142.
Abelard's most famous book is "Yes and No". It is a dialectical argument for and against many theses. It did not however produce any conclusions.
Abelard held that, apart from Scriptures, dialectic is the sole road to truth.
He considered logic to be the chief science.
He is best known for logic and theory of knowledge.
Universals - "what can be predicated of many different things" (Russell, 430).
Abelard held that we do not predicate a thing, but only a word. He was a nomalist in this sense.
He fought realism.
He regards Platonic Ideas as the pattern of creation in the mind of God.
St. Bernard charged him without fully understanding Abelard's teachings. The heresies Bernard charged him with are:
1) Treating the Trinity like an Arian
2) Treating grace like a Pelagian
3) Treating the Person of Christ like a Nestorian
4) Being a heathen by making Plato to be a Christian
5) Destroying Christianity by maintaining that God can be understood through reason alone.
In all reality it was his hostile disposition towards clergy that caused his heretical label and not his teachings.
Abelard was more dialectical than any others at his time.
1) The school of Chartres was a humanistic movement
2) Abelard of Bath translated Euclid due to a renaissance of mathematical learning
3) There was a strong mystical movement headed by St. Bernard.
St. Bernard was not an intellectualist, but was extremely influential.
1) His father was a knight in the first Crusade
2) He was a Cistercian monk
3) He was the abbot at Clairvaux
4) He was influential in ecclesiastical politics
5) He fought antipopes
6) he combatted heresy in Northern Italy and Southern France
7) He brought philosophers down with the weight of orthodoxy
8) He set into motion the second Crusade
"Although a politician and a bigot, he was a man of genuinely religious temperament" (Russel, 439).
Bernard's reverence of the Papacy increased the power of the Pope.
The Eclipse of the Papacy
(Originally written July 29, 2006 in Book 5)
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Chapter XV - The Eclipse of the Papacy
The Christian 13th century was the culmination of Greek philosophy, Alexander's conquests and oriental religions.
Russell calls Satan "a development of Ahriman" (Russell, 476). Ahriman was an evil Persian God.
Linehan - Yes, Christianity incorporated a number of influences, but to state that it is wholly derivative is ridiculous. Also to not explicitly state the influence of ancient Judaism is wholly disgusting from a purely historical point of view... Russell does pay lip service to the Jewish element of Christianity. My apologies.
Russell believes that the switch from Plato to Aristotle may have been detrimental.
The Pope became a pawn of the French King.
The rise of a wealthy merchant class also took power from the papacy.
Cities became more independent from Pope and Emperor.
The decline of the papacy can be stated as the beginning with a plenary indulgence issued in the first jubilee year by Pope Boniface VIII.
The Avignon Papacy caused further independence form the Pope and weekend its power.
Pope Gregory XI returned the papacy to Rome. The French Cardinal's split form the Church causing the Great Schism. The Schism ended in 1417 with the council of Constance and the crowning of Pope Martin V.
John Wycliffe (1320-1384) shows the decline of Papal power. Wycliffe was a realist and a Platonist, but a scholastic nonetheless. He was orthodox until he was 50 then became heretical. The heresy became apparent in 1376 with the lectures at Oxford called "On Civil Dominion". His heresies were on property ownership. Eighteen theses of Wycliffe were condemned by Gregory XI. He was protected by the Queen and the mob of England from the Pope's summons. He translated the Vulgate into English and labeled the Pope as an anti-Christ. He denounced transubstantiation as a blasphemous folly. He got into more trouble when he did not condemn the Peasant's Revolt of 1381. He was excommunicated in 1366. His teachings were stamped out in England but reached Bohemia and Jan Hus. The Hussites paved the way for the Reformation.
End of Book 2
Linehan - I have lost a bit of respect for Russell in his treatment of Christianity. He labels many devout Christians as bigots, but his tactics are driven by bigotry. He is inconsistent and a great bigot himself. There have been a number of atrocities performed in the name of Christ, but how many atrocities have been performed in some other name? Christians ought to be held in a higher judgment, but atrocities performed in Christ's name discredits the performers and performances, not Christ.
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Chapter XV - The Eclipse of the Papacy
The Christian 13th century was the culmination of Greek philosophy, Alexander's conquests and oriental religions.
Russell calls Satan "a development of Ahriman" (Russell, 476). Ahriman was an evil Persian God.
Linehan - Yes, Christianity incorporated a number of influences, but to state that it is wholly derivative is ridiculous. Also to not explicitly state the influence of ancient Judaism is wholly disgusting from a purely historical point of view... Russell does pay lip service to the Jewish element of Christianity. My apologies.
Russell believes that the switch from Plato to Aristotle may have been detrimental.
The Pope became a pawn of the French King.
The rise of a wealthy merchant class also took power from the papacy.
Cities became more independent from Pope and Emperor.
The decline of the papacy can be stated as the beginning with a plenary indulgence issued in the first jubilee year by Pope Boniface VIII.
The Avignon Papacy caused further independence form the Pope and weekend its power.
Pope Gregory XI returned the papacy to Rome. The French Cardinal's split form the Church causing the Great Schism. The Schism ended in 1417 with the council of Constance and the crowning of Pope Martin V.
John Wycliffe (1320-1384) shows the decline of Papal power. Wycliffe was a realist and a Platonist, but a scholastic nonetheless. He was orthodox until he was 50 then became heretical. The heresy became apparent in 1376 with the lectures at Oxford called "On Civil Dominion". His heresies were on property ownership. Eighteen theses of Wycliffe were condemned by Gregory XI. He was protected by the Queen and the mob of England from the Pope's summons. He translated the Vulgate into English and labeled the Pope as an anti-Christ. He denounced transubstantiation as a blasphemous folly. He got into more trouble when he did not condemn the Peasant's Revolt of 1381. He was excommunicated in 1366. His teachings were stamped out in England but reached Bohemia and Jan Hus. The Hussites paved the way for the Reformation.
End of Book 2
Linehan - I have lost a bit of respect for Russell in his treatment of Christianity. He labels many devout Christians as bigots, but his tactics are driven by bigotry. He is inconsistent and a great bigot himself. There have been a number of atrocities performed in the name of Christ, but how many atrocities have been performed in some other name? Christians ought to be held in a higher judgment, but atrocities performed in Christ's name discredits the performers and performances, not Christ.
Chapter 14 - Franciscan Schoolmen
(Originally written July 29, 2006 in Book 5)
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Chapter 14 - Franciscan Schoolmen
The Franciscans and Dominicans were bitter rivals. The Franciscans were less orthodox. They were disinclined to accept the authority of Thomas Aquinas (a Dominican).
The Franciscans produced Roger Bacon, Duns Scotus, William of Occam, Saint Bonaventura and Matthew of Aquasparta.
Roger Bacon lived from 1214-1294. Bacon was a philosopher and a man of science. Science was mixed up with black magic and alchemy at the time so Bacon was in constant danger of being labeled a heretic. He was placed under a no-publish edict by the head of the Franciscans, but commanded by the papal legate to England to write his philosophy for the benefit o the Pope. He wrote three books in a very short time:
1) Opus Majus
2) Opus Minus
3) Opus Tertium
He was imprisoned for condemning clerics for ignorance. He was imprisoned 14 years and died shortly after being released. He was experimental by nature; encyclopedic but not systematic. He was a good geographer and a good mathematician. He thought logic was useless and wrote on alchemy.
He believed there were four causes for ignorance:
1) frail and unsuitable authority
2) influence of custom
3) the opinion of the unlearned crowd
4) the concealment of ignorance by apparent wisdom
All ignorance produces the evils that plague mankind. The fourth is the worst.
He considers Aristotle to be the chief philosopher and Avicenna the price.
He sees no fault in finding truth from the heathen and quotes Avicenna, Averroes, Alfarabi and Albumazar.
He sees mathematics as the only unrivaled source of certitude.
He believed that the intellect is separate from the soul.
Modern times praise Bacon because he places experimentation as a source of knowledge in higher esteem than argumentation as a source.
He believed in magic and astrology.
He is more respected now than he was in medieval times.
St. Bonaventura (1221-1274) was the General of the Franciscan order. He believed in the ontological argument for God. He believed in Platonic Ideas and saw Aristotelianism as in opposition to Christianity. He quoted Augustine extensively but ignored Pagan and Arab philosophies.
Matthew of Aquasparta (1235-1302) was a follower of Bonaventura. He opposed Aquinas from an Augustinian point of view. He quotes Aristotle, Avicenna, Anselm, the pseudo-dionysius and chiefly, Augustine.
He believed that Plato's ideas produce wisdom, but not knowledge and Aristotle produced knowledge but not wisdom. He sought to sync the two.
Duns Scotus (1270-1308) was Scottish and joined the Franciscans at Oxford University. He fought Aquinas on the immaculate conception and won the argument. He was Augustinian but less severe than other Franciscans.
Franciscans often disagreed with Aquinas because he was Aristotelian and the Franciscans were Platonic (through Augustine).
Scouts was a moderate realist, believed in Free Will and leaned somewhat to Pelagianism.
He held that there was no difference between being and essence.
He focused on evidence, things knowable without proof. There were three kinds of evidence:
1) Principles known by themselves
2) Things known by experience
3) our own actions
Without divine illumination no one can know anything.
He held the the principle of individuation (what makes one thing not identical with another) was due to form, not matter.
William of Occam is the second most important scholastic philosopher next to Aquinas. He lived circa 1290-1350. He was a pupil, then a rival of Scotus. He was excommunicated by Pope John XXII and took refuge with Emperor Louis (who was likewise excommunicated).
Dante (1265-1321) was an influential commentator in this age. Marsiglio of Padua (1270-1342) was a friend of William of Occham and a great political force of the time (in theory, not action). Marsiglio and William sought to preserve the Catholic faith, but fought against papal absolutism.
William's political works are done in a philosophical disputation style. William is best known for Occam's razor "it is vain to do with more what can be done with fewer" (Russell, 472).
In logic, William of Occam was a homilist.
He set to free logic and theory of knowledge from the basis of metaphysics and theology.
He holds that there are six metaphysical terms:
1) being
2) thing
3) something
4) one
5) true
6) good
He holds universals are things that can be predicated to many.
William of Occam believed perception to be the definition of knowledge.
His work encouraged scientific research.
After William of Occam there were no great scholastic philosophers.
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Chapter 14 - Franciscan Schoolmen
The Franciscans and Dominicans were bitter rivals. The Franciscans were less orthodox. They were disinclined to accept the authority of Thomas Aquinas (a Dominican).
The Franciscans produced Roger Bacon, Duns Scotus, William of Occam, Saint Bonaventura and Matthew of Aquasparta.
Roger Bacon lived from 1214-1294. Bacon was a philosopher and a man of science. Science was mixed up with black magic and alchemy at the time so Bacon was in constant danger of being labeled a heretic. He was placed under a no-publish edict by the head of the Franciscans, but commanded by the papal legate to England to write his philosophy for the benefit o the Pope. He wrote three books in a very short time:
1) Opus Majus
2) Opus Minus
3) Opus Tertium
He was imprisoned for condemning clerics for ignorance. He was imprisoned 14 years and died shortly after being released. He was experimental by nature; encyclopedic but not systematic. He was a good geographer and a good mathematician. He thought logic was useless and wrote on alchemy.
He believed there were four causes for ignorance:
1) frail and unsuitable authority
2) influence of custom
3) the opinion of the unlearned crowd
4) the concealment of ignorance by apparent wisdom
All ignorance produces the evils that plague mankind. The fourth is the worst.
He considers Aristotle to be the chief philosopher and Avicenna the price.
He sees no fault in finding truth from the heathen and quotes Avicenna, Averroes, Alfarabi and Albumazar.
He sees mathematics as the only unrivaled source of certitude.
He believed that the intellect is separate from the soul.
Modern times praise Bacon because he places experimentation as a source of knowledge in higher esteem than argumentation as a source.
He believed in magic and astrology.
He is more respected now than he was in medieval times.
St. Bonaventura (1221-1274) was the General of the Franciscan order. He believed in the ontological argument for God. He believed in Platonic Ideas and saw Aristotelianism as in opposition to Christianity. He quoted Augustine extensively but ignored Pagan and Arab philosophies.
Matthew of Aquasparta (1235-1302) was a follower of Bonaventura. He opposed Aquinas from an Augustinian point of view. He quotes Aristotle, Avicenna, Anselm, the pseudo-dionysius and chiefly, Augustine.
He believed that Plato's ideas produce wisdom, but not knowledge and Aristotle produced knowledge but not wisdom. He sought to sync the two.
Duns Scotus (1270-1308) was Scottish and joined the Franciscans at Oxford University. He fought Aquinas on the immaculate conception and won the argument. He was Augustinian but less severe than other Franciscans.
Franciscans often disagreed with Aquinas because he was Aristotelian and the Franciscans were Platonic (through Augustine).
Scouts was a moderate realist, believed in Free Will and leaned somewhat to Pelagianism.
He held that there was no difference between being and essence.
He focused on evidence, things knowable without proof. There were three kinds of evidence:
1) Principles known by themselves
2) Things known by experience
3) our own actions
Without divine illumination no one can know anything.
He held the the principle of individuation (what makes one thing not identical with another) was due to form, not matter.
William of Occam is the second most important scholastic philosopher next to Aquinas. He lived circa 1290-1350. He was a pupil, then a rival of Scotus. He was excommunicated by Pope John XXII and took refuge with Emperor Louis (who was likewise excommunicated).
Dante (1265-1321) was an influential commentator in this age. Marsiglio of Padua (1270-1342) was a friend of William of Occham and a great political force of the time (in theory, not action). Marsiglio and William sought to preserve the Catholic faith, but fought against papal absolutism.
William's political works are done in a philosophical disputation style. William is best known for Occam's razor "it is vain to do with more what can be done with fewer" (Russell, 472).
In logic, William of Occam was a homilist.
He set to free logic and theory of knowledge from the basis of metaphysics and theology.
He holds that there are six metaphysical terms:
1) being
2) thing
3) something
4) one
5) true
6) good
He holds universals are things that can be predicated to many.
William of Occam believed perception to be the definition of knowledge.
His work encouraged scientific research.
After William of Occam there were no great scholastic philosophers.
Renaissance Philosophy - Russell
(Originally written July 29, 2006 in Book 7)
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Book Three (Modern Philosophy)
Pt. 1 From the Renaissance to Hume
Ch. 1 - General Characteristics
'Modern' times differs from the Medieval period in many ways. These are the two most important:
1) The diminishing power of the Church
2) The increasing authority of science
These two led to others:
-Culture becoming less clerical dominated
-State government replacing Church power
Ecclesiastical judgments are pronounced as absolute and unalterable. Scientific judgments are liable to change with new discovery. This produces a different mind set for modern thinkers.
The fall of the Church power led to individualism to the point of anarchy.
The Italian Renaissance was an embracement of anarchy.
The Reformation and counter-reformation put an end to the good and bad components of the Italian Renaissance.
Modern philosophy is individualistic and subjective.
The extreme subjectivism of this period is a form of madness.
Scientific technique is a cure for individualism and subjectivism.
"Unlike religion, it is ethically neutral: it assures men that they can perform wonders, but does not tell them what wonders to perform" (Russell, 494).
Linehan - Thus, as soon as the objective scientific technique is used it becomes subjective to the users desire? Hmmm.
Chapter II - The Italian Renaissance
The Renaissance began in Italy and marked the beginning of the modern mind.
There were five powerful Italian states:
1) Milan
2) Venice
3) Florence
4) the Papal Domain
5) Naples
Florence was the most civilized city in the world and the birth place of the Renaissance.
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Book Three (Modern Philosophy)
Pt. 1 From the Renaissance to Hume
Ch. 1 - General Characteristics
'Modern' times differs from the Medieval period in many ways. These are the two most important:
1) The diminishing power of the Church
2) The increasing authority of science
These two led to others:
-Culture becoming less clerical dominated
-State government replacing Church power
Ecclesiastical judgments are pronounced as absolute and unalterable. Scientific judgments are liable to change with new discovery. This produces a different mind set for modern thinkers.
The fall of the Church power led to individualism to the point of anarchy.
The Italian Renaissance was an embracement of anarchy.
The Reformation and counter-reformation put an end to the good and bad components of the Italian Renaissance.
Modern philosophy is individualistic and subjective.
The extreme subjectivism of this period is a form of madness.
Scientific technique is a cure for individualism and subjectivism.
"Unlike religion, it is ethically neutral: it assures men that they can perform wonders, but does not tell them what wonders to perform" (Russell, 494).
Linehan - Thus, as soon as the objective scientific technique is used it becomes subjective to the users desire? Hmmm.
Chapter II - The Italian Renaissance
The Renaissance began in Italy and marked the beginning of the modern mind.
There were five powerful Italian states:
1) Milan
2) Venice
3) Florence
4) the Papal Domain
5) Naples
Florence was the most civilized city in the world and the birth place of the Renaissance.
Wednesday, July 26, 2006
The 12th Century (A)
(Originally written July 26, 2006 in Book 5)
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Chapter XI - The 12th Century
Four aspects of the 12th century are of special interest to Russell:
1) The continued conflict of empire and papacy
2) The rise of the Lombard cities
3) The Crusades
4) The growth of scholasticism
Conflict of Empire & Papacy
The Popes gained more power over the kings in the 12th century. They consolidated power in the Church and Church officials were better behaved than before the reform.
The Lombard cities achieved a sense of independence through wars against Frederick Barbarossa of the Holy Roman Empire.
The cities of Northern Italy rose through trade, not through the Church.
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Chapter XI - The 12th Century
Four aspects of the 12th century are of special interest to Russell:
1) The continued conflict of empire and papacy
2) The rise of the Lombard cities
3) The Crusades
4) The growth of scholasticism
Conflict of Empire & Papacy
The Popes gained more power over the kings in the 12th century. They consolidated power in the Church and Church officials were better behaved than before the reform.
The Lombard cities achieved a sense of independence through wars against Frederick Barbarossa of the Holy Roman Empire.
The cities of Northern Italy rose through trade, not through the Church.
Sunday, July 23, 2006
Ecclesiastical Reform in the 11th Century
(Originally written July 23, 2006 in Book 5)
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Chapter IX - Ecclesiastical Reform in the 11th Century
The progress of the 11th century began with monastic reform.
The Church sought to consolidate its power but it had to clean up itself first by ridding themselves of two great evils:
1) Simony
2) Concubinage
Simony was the practice of selling a position in the Church for a sum of money.
Celibacy in the clergy was more for political reasoning then Biblical. Priests who had sons passed Church property onto them. The Church did not like this. Celibacy set men apart from others. For priests to be revered in the highest esteem they necessarily had to be celibate. The Church demanded them to be set apart from the laity. Celibacy was a means to this end.
William the Pious, Duke of Aquitaine, founded the Abbey of Cluny and the Cluniac reform movement in 910 AD.
The Camaldolese Orderwas founded by Romuad and the Camaldolese produced Peter Damian.
Bruno of Cologne founded the Carthusians in 1084.
In 1098 the Cistercian Order was founded. St. Bernard joined them in 1113.
The reform of the Papacy began with a simony Pope, Pope Gregory VI. Gregory VI was deposed for simony by the Holy Roman Emperor Henry III in 1046. Henry III continually deposed popes and appointed new ones. Pope Leo IX was then appointed by Henry III in 1049.
Leo IX was a reformer. He claimed independence from Henry III and the Papacy claimed superiority over the Emperor.
The college of Cardinals was set up to select the Pope, depriving the Romans and the Emperors of power.
Pope Nicholas II played a large part in reducing simony. Nicholas II also fought with the archbishop of Milan, who thought he was independent of the Pope.
Saint Peter Damian was crucial to the Milanese clerics repenting of their simony and pledging allegiance to the Papacy.
Pope Gregory VII became Pope in 1073. He was one of the most eminent Popes of all time. Gregory VII enforced clerical celibacy more than any other previous pope. Gregory VII dealt with the Investiture controversy, excommunicating Emperor Henry IV and thus causing civil war in the feudal Holy Roman Empire.
The 10th century was almost devoid of philosophers except for Pope Sylvester II (999-1003).
The 11th century produced a number of philosophers:
1) Anselm
2) Roscelin
3) Peter Damian
4) Berengar of Tours - a semi rationalist
4) Lanfranc
Anselm came up with the ontological argument for the existence of God. The ontological argument states:
1) God is the greatest possible objet of thought
2) If an object of thought does not exist, another, exactly like it, which does exist is greater.
3) The greatest of all objects of thought must exist. Otherwise another object would exist and be greater.
4) Thus, God exists.
The ontological argument has been rejected by theologians, but has faired better among philosophers. Descartes used an amended formed. Leibniz used it to prove the possibility of God. It underlies the Hegelian system. Bradley used it.
Anselm believed in Platonic ideas. He used Neoplatonic arguments to prove the existence of the Trinity.
Anselm considered reason subordinate to faith.
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Chapter IX - Ecclesiastical Reform in the 11th Century
The progress of the 11th century began with monastic reform.
The Church sought to consolidate its power but it had to clean up itself first by ridding themselves of two great evils:
1) Simony
2) Concubinage
Simony was the practice of selling a position in the Church for a sum of money.
Celibacy in the clergy was more for political reasoning then Biblical. Priests who had sons passed Church property onto them. The Church did not like this. Celibacy set men apart from others. For priests to be revered in the highest esteem they necessarily had to be celibate. The Church demanded them to be set apart from the laity. Celibacy was a means to this end.
William the Pious, Duke of Aquitaine, founded the Abbey of Cluny and the Cluniac reform movement in 910 AD.
The Camaldolese Orderwas founded by Romuad and the Camaldolese produced Peter Damian.
Bruno of Cologne founded the Carthusians in 1084.
In 1098 the Cistercian Order was founded. St. Bernard joined them in 1113.
The reform of the Papacy began with a simony Pope, Pope Gregory VI. Gregory VI was deposed for simony by the Holy Roman Emperor Henry III in 1046. Henry III continually deposed popes and appointed new ones. Pope Leo IX was then appointed by Henry III in 1049.
Leo IX was a reformer. He claimed independence from Henry III and the Papacy claimed superiority over the Emperor.
The college of Cardinals was set up to select the Pope, depriving the Romans and the Emperors of power.
Pope Nicholas II played a large part in reducing simony. Nicholas II also fought with the archbishop of Milan, who thought he was independent of the Pope.
Saint Peter Damian was crucial to the Milanese clerics repenting of their simony and pledging allegiance to the Papacy.
Pope Gregory VII became Pope in 1073. He was one of the most eminent Popes of all time. Gregory VII enforced clerical celibacy more than any other previous pope. Gregory VII dealt with the Investiture controversy, excommunicating Emperor Henry IV and thus causing civil war in the feudal Holy Roman Empire.
The 10th century was almost devoid of philosophers except for Pope Sylvester II (999-1003).
The 11th century produced a number of philosophers:
1) Anselm
2) Roscelin
3) Peter Damian
4) Berengar of Tours - a semi rationalist
4) Lanfranc
Anselm came up with the ontological argument for the existence of God. The ontological argument states:
1) God is the greatest possible objet of thought
2) If an object of thought does not exist, another, exactly like it, which does exist is greater.
3) The greatest of all objects of thought must exist. Otherwise another object would exist and be greater.
4) Thus, God exists.
The ontological argument has been rejected by theologians, but has faired better among philosophers. Descartes used an amended formed. Leibniz used it to prove the possibility of God. It underlies the Hegelian system. Bradley used it.
Anselm believed in Platonic ideas. He used Neoplatonic arguments to prove the existence of the Trinity.
Anselm considered reason subordinate to faith.
The Papacy of the Dark Ages
(Originally written July 23, 2006 in Book 5)
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Chapter 7 - The Papacy of the Dark Ages
The Pope allied himself with the Franks, in Charlemagne, laying the foundations for the Holy Roman Empire. The Papal States were established by a union between Pope Stephen III and Pepin, who became king of the Franks. Pepin's son, Charlemagne, defeated the Lombards in Italy, giving the Papal States legitimacy. Charlemagne, though illiterate, revived literacy in the new Holy Roman Empire.
St. Boniface converted Germany through monasticism. Boniface was a native of Devonshire, England and was educated at Exeter and Winchester. It is Boniface's work that made German Christianity faithful to the Pope and not independent like Irish Christianity.
Alucin was important to culture and taught Charlemagne's court Latin.
The decay of Carolingian power after the death of Charlemagne allowed the Pope to claim more power in Pope Nicholas I.
During the 10th Century the Papacy was under control of the powerful Roman aristocratic families.
Monastic reform began around 1000 and brought the Church out of a very low time.
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Chapter 7 - The Papacy of the Dark Ages
The Pope allied himself with the Franks, in Charlemagne, laying the foundations for the Holy Roman Empire. The Papal States were established by a union between Pope Stephen III and Pepin, who became king of the Franks. Pepin's son, Charlemagne, defeated the Lombards in Italy, giving the Papal States legitimacy. Charlemagne, though illiterate, revived literacy in the new Holy Roman Empire.
St. Boniface converted Germany through monasticism. Boniface was a native of Devonshire, England and was educated at Exeter and Winchester. It is Boniface's work that made German Christianity faithful to the Pope and not independent like Irish Christianity.
Alucin was important to culture and taught Charlemagne's court Latin.
The decay of Carolingian power after the death of Charlemagne allowed the Pope to claim more power in Pope Nicholas I.
During the 10th Century the Papacy was under control of the powerful Roman aristocratic families.
Monastic reform began around 1000 and brought the Church out of a very low time.
Saturday, July 22, 2006
St. Benedict and Gregory the Great (A)
(Originally written July 22, 2006 in Book 5)
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Chapter VI - St. Benedict and Gregory the Great
The monastic movement, the rise of the papacy, and the conversion of the Barbarians were the greatest achievements of the Church in the 6th and succeeding centuries.
Monasticism was began in both Egypt and Syria simultaneously in the 4th century.
Monasticism initially had two forms:
1) Hermitage (solitary)
2) Monasteries (communal)
The communal form is what conquered the Christian world.
Syrian monks were more ascetic than others.
St. Basil (360 AD) introduced monasticism in Greek-speaking nations.
St. Athanasius brought the Church and monasticism together.
St. Jerome promoted monasticism. Augustine introduced it to Africa. St. Martin of Tours introduced it to Gaul. St. Patrick introduced it to Ireland.
Monasticism initially caused disorder in the Church.
St. Benedict was the founder of the Benedictine Order and the Benedictine Rule. He was born in 480 to a noble family and founded Monte Cassino in 520. Benedict stabilized monasticism and created order.
Pope Gregory the Great was a Benedictine and wrote about St. Benedict.
Gregory was born in 540 into a rich and noble Roman family. He became prefect of Rome in 573 but turned to religion.
He went to Constantinople from 579-585 as a Papal official in the Eastern Empire's imperial court. Gregory became Pope in 590 and faced political turmoil, ecclesiastical turmoil (simony and corrupt bishops) Arianism, and a reversion of England back to Paganism.
As Pope Gregory consolidated and asserted dominance to the Pontiff.
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Chapter VI - St. Benedict and Gregory the Great
The monastic movement, the rise of the papacy, and the conversion of the Barbarians were the greatest achievements of the Church in the 6th and succeeding centuries.
Monasticism was began in both Egypt and Syria simultaneously in the 4th century.
Monasticism initially had two forms:
1) Hermitage (solitary)
2) Monasteries (communal)
The communal form is what conquered the Christian world.
Syrian monks were more ascetic than others.
St. Basil (360 AD) introduced monasticism in Greek-speaking nations.
St. Athanasius brought the Church and monasticism together.
St. Jerome promoted monasticism. Augustine introduced it to Africa. St. Martin of Tours introduced it to Gaul. St. Patrick introduced it to Ireland.
Monasticism initially caused disorder in the Church.
St. Benedict was the founder of the Benedictine Order and the Benedictine Rule. He was born in 480 to a noble family and founded Monte Cassino in 520. Benedict stabilized monasticism and created order.
Pope Gregory the Great was a Benedictine and wrote about St. Benedict.
Gregory was born in 540 into a rich and noble Roman family. He became prefect of Rome in 573 but turned to religion.
He went to Constantinople from 579-585 as a Papal official in the Eastern Empire's imperial court. Gregory became Pope in 590 and faced political turmoil, ecclesiastical turmoil (simony and corrupt bishops) Arianism, and a reversion of England back to Paganism.
As Pope Gregory consolidated and asserted dominance to the Pontiff.
Monday, April 24, 2006
Luther timeline
(Originally written April 24, 2006 in 3 Subject)
European Religious History
Luther is teaching at Wittenburg University. He begins to tackle the theological implications of the New Testament. At the time of Luther scholasticism and humanism are opposite points in the intellectual and religious world. Catholic disagreements among theologians were commonplace at the time he posted the 95 Theses. Luther expects that each of his thesis will be debated against by Papal legates, not be ignored or lead to his expulsion. Pope Leo X sees Luther's 95 theses as the ramblings of a drunken German. The Church has a stronghold on all heresies, making them nearly non-existent.
95 Theses
-Luther fears that indulgences are replacing the repentant lifestyles that Jesus requires. Luther does not reject the sacrament of penance entirely, he is upset because it is being misunderstood by the laity.
-Luther states that Pope cannot pardon all sins. The Pope can only forgive the sins committed against the sin. Only God can forgive sins committed against God.
-Luther challenges the concept of purgatory.
-Indulgences cause people to believe their sins are forgiven so they won't be contrite and thus, be lost.
-Wrote to inform the Pope how the theology in his name is being corrupted.
The Archbishop of Mainz, who bought the office asks the theologians of the University of Mainz what they thought about the 95 theses. Pope Leo X doesn't see the 95 theses as being any particularly big deal. He orders the Augustinians to get ahold of and control Luther, an Augustinian himself. Frederick the Wise (the elector and ruler over the territory Luther is living in) protects Luther because he is enjoying the attention that his region is getting on account of Luther. Luther is declared a heretic by a Dominican in 1518 and ordered to be extradited to Rome. The Pope states he has this power because the Papacy has jurisdiction over all clerics. Frederick the Wise disagrees and claims authority over Luther because of his professorship in his district, thus giving Frederick jurisdiction. He orders that the trial of Luther must be done in Germany and he can appeal to the Holy Roman Emperor.
Luther then asks for a trial among German theologians. Frederick approves of this. The Pope is forced to back down because the Holy Roman Emperor will die soon and wishes to influence Frederick and the other German electors to elect an emperor favorable to Pope Leo X. The Pope sends Papal legates to the trial but orders them not to engage in the debate and only say "submit to the Pope". The Papal legate however condemns Luther without him even speaking, but he is not formally excommunicated. After this Luther realizes that he is getting Frederick into a dangerous situation and offers to leave the territory. Frederick decides however to protect Luther until the matter is settled.
The Holy Roman Emperor dies in 1519. The Leipzig Disputation (Leipzig University was a very staunchly Catholic place) refuses to debate the theses and only continues to demand that Luther submit to the Pope. Luther then challenges the Papal authority. He declares that the Papacy does not have the authority it claims to have. Luther declares himself more orthodox than the Leipzig University and the Catholics there. Leipzig then declares Luther to be a Hussite (Jan Hus).
Luther however knew neither Hus nor Wycliffe but agreed with some of their points. Luther placed the Bible over the traditions of the Church and above the Church fathers. He taught that justification came solely by grace through faith.
Luther begins to realize that he may have to denounce the Pope's authority outright. Meanwhile Charles V, the king of Spain, is elected the Holy Roman Emperor (being the grandson of the former Holy Roman Emperor). This gives Charles dominion over Spain, Burgundy, Germany and the Netherlands. The lands of Charles completely surround France, leaving King Francis I to feel threatened by Charles V. In 1520 Luther releases documents writing to the German princes (electors) to take responsibility in Church reform, further angering the Pope.
European Religious History
Luther is teaching at Wittenburg University. He begins to tackle the theological implications of the New Testament. At the time of Luther scholasticism and humanism are opposite points in the intellectual and religious world. Catholic disagreements among theologians were commonplace at the time he posted the 95 Theses. Luther expects that each of his thesis will be debated against by Papal legates, not be ignored or lead to his expulsion. Pope Leo X sees Luther's 95 theses as the ramblings of a drunken German. The Church has a stronghold on all heresies, making them nearly non-existent.
95 Theses
-Luther fears that indulgences are replacing the repentant lifestyles that Jesus requires. Luther does not reject the sacrament of penance entirely, he is upset because it is being misunderstood by the laity.
-Luther states that Pope cannot pardon all sins. The Pope can only forgive the sins committed against the sin. Only God can forgive sins committed against God.
-Luther challenges the concept of purgatory.
-Indulgences cause people to believe their sins are forgiven so they won't be contrite and thus, be lost.
-Wrote to inform the Pope how the theology in his name is being corrupted.
The Archbishop of Mainz, who bought the office asks the theologians of the University of Mainz what they thought about the 95 theses. Pope Leo X doesn't see the 95 theses as being any particularly big deal. He orders the Augustinians to get ahold of and control Luther, an Augustinian himself. Frederick the Wise (the elector and ruler over the territory Luther is living in) protects Luther because he is enjoying the attention that his region is getting on account of Luther. Luther is declared a heretic by a Dominican in 1518 and ordered to be extradited to Rome. The Pope states he has this power because the Papacy has jurisdiction over all clerics. Frederick the Wise disagrees and claims authority over Luther because of his professorship in his district, thus giving Frederick jurisdiction. He orders that the trial of Luther must be done in Germany and he can appeal to the Holy Roman Emperor.
Luther then asks for a trial among German theologians. Frederick approves of this. The Pope is forced to back down because the Holy Roman Emperor will die soon and wishes to influence Frederick and the other German electors to elect an emperor favorable to Pope Leo X. The Pope sends Papal legates to the trial but orders them not to engage in the debate and only say "submit to the Pope". The Papal legate however condemns Luther without him even speaking, but he is not formally excommunicated. After this Luther realizes that he is getting Frederick into a dangerous situation and offers to leave the territory. Frederick decides however to protect Luther until the matter is settled.
The Holy Roman Emperor dies in 1519. The Leipzig Disputation (Leipzig University was a very staunchly Catholic place) refuses to debate the theses and only continues to demand that Luther submit to the Pope. Luther then challenges the Papal authority. He declares that the Papacy does not have the authority it claims to have. Luther declares himself more orthodox than the Leipzig University and the Catholics there. Leipzig then declares Luther to be a Hussite (Jan Hus).
Luther however knew neither Hus nor Wycliffe but agreed with some of their points. Luther placed the Bible over the traditions of the Church and above the Church fathers. He taught that justification came solely by grace through faith.
Luther begins to realize that he may have to denounce the Pope's authority outright. Meanwhile Charles V, the king of Spain, is elected the Holy Roman Emperor (being the grandson of the former Holy Roman Emperor). This gives Charles dominion over Spain, Burgundy, Germany and the Netherlands. The lands of Charles completely surround France, leaving King Francis I to feel threatened by Charles V. In 1520 Luther releases documents writing to the German princes (electors) to take responsibility in Church reform, further angering the Pope.
Wednesday, April 19, 2006
Renaissance Popes & Martin Luther
(Originally Written April 19, 2006 in 3 Subject)
European Religious History
Problems in the Renaissance Church:
1. Simony
2. Clerical Marriage
-Priests with wives or concubines
-upper Church officials with concubines and children
-Popes known to have illegitimate children
3. Nepotism
-Nepotism leads to the building of Clerical Dynasties
4. Pluralism (having two positions simultaneously)
-An unfortunate, but sometime necessary evil in some cases on account of the black death
-Non-residency of bishops in their bishoprics
Renaissance Popes
-Council of Constance (1411-1414)
-Reformation
-Most Renaissance Popes are looked cross-eyed at by the people for various religious issues
Systux IV - Nepotism, but begins the building of the Sistine Chapel and commissions Michaelangelo
Innocent VIII - (worst example of the Renaissance Popes) - 16 illegitimate children, which is widely known. Continues the Papal trend of centralizing Papal authority by creating 52 new administration jobs
Alexander VI (1492-1503)
-Buys the Papacy
-Borgia, son of Alexander VI, is sent in military action to divide the Papal States into his own familial lands
Julius II (1503-1513) - Leads the Papal army against his own enemies, dubbed "The Warrior Pope"
-Erasmus of Roderdam wrote "Julius Exclusivis" as a satire of Julius II
-Julius II did however commission the building of St. Peter's Basilica
Leo X (1513-1521)
-1st Medici Family Pope
-Pope during Martin Luther's 95 thesis posting
-Leo X was made Archbishop at age 8 and a Cardinal at age 13 by the Medici family
Problems in the Holy Roman Empire
- Holy Roman Empire elects its emperor with the 7 princes (7 noble families)
-Because of elections, Germany cannot consolidate power like France and England. Emperors are also unable to ensure dynastic succession.
-This sets the tables for Martin Luther to shake up the world.
1)All of Europe has a looming presence in the east. The ottoman Empire is the most powerful empire in the region (Turkey & Greece). The Pope and the Holy Roman Empire have the most to worry about because the Holy Roman Empire is not consolidated and the Pope already has problems with the Ottomans, the Holy Roman Empire, The French King, the French Catholic Church and various others in Europe.
2)The Printing Press: Luther's crew is better with this new invention than the Pope's Catholic Brigade.
3)Literacy is on the rise because of the Renaissance ideal of education and emphasis on public schools.
4) Luther appeals to the German princes to overthrow the Catholic Church, who are politically estranged from the Papacy.
European Religious History
Problems in the Renaissance Church:
1. Simony
2. Clerical Marriage
-Priests with wives or concubines
-upper Church officials with concubines and children
-Popes known to have illegitimate children
3. Nepotism
-Nepotism leads to the building of Clerical Dynasties
4. Pluralism (having two positions simultaneously)
-An unfortunate, but sometime necessary evil in some cases on account of the black death
-Non-residency of bishops in their bishoprics
Renaissance Popes
-Council of Constance (1411-1414)
-Reformation
-Most Renaissance Popes are looked cross-eyed at by the people for various religious issues
Systux IV - Nepotism, but begins the building of the Sistine Chapel and commissions Michaelangelo
Innocent VIII - (worst example of the Renaissance Popes) - 16 illegitimate children, which is widely known. Continues the Papal trend of centralizing Papal authority by creating 52 new administration jobs
Alexander VI (1492-1503)
-Buys the Papacy
-Borgia, son of Alexander VI, is sent in military action to divide the Papal States into his own familial lands
Julius II (1503-1513) - Leads the Papal army against his own enemies, dubbed "The Warrior Pope"
-Erasmus of Roderdam wrote "Julius Exclusivis" as a satire of Julius II
-Julius II did however commission the building of St. Peter's Basilica
Leo X (1513-1521)
-1st Medici Family Pope
-Pope during Martin Luther's 95 thesis posting
-Leo X was made Archbishop at age 8 and a Cardinal at age 13 by the Medici family
Problems in the Holy Roman Empire
- Holy Roman Empire elects its emperor with the 7 princes (7 noble families)
-Because of elections, Germany cannot consolidate power like France and England. Emperors are also unable to ensure dynastic succession.
-This sets the tables for Martin Luther to shake up the world.
1)All of Europe has a looming presence in the east. The ottoman Empire is the most powerful empire in the region (Turkey & Greece). The Pope and the Holy Roman Empire have the most to worry about because the Holy Roman Empire is not consolidated and the Pope already has problems with the Ottomans, the Holy Roman Empire, The French King, the French Catholic Church and various others in Europe.
2)The Printing Press: Luther's crew is better with this new invention than the Pope's Catholic Brigade.
3)Literacy is on the rise because of the Renaissance ideal of education and emphasis on public schools.
4) Luther appeals to the German princes to overthrow the Catholic Church, who are politically estranged from the Papacy.
Friday, March 17, 2006
The Avignon Papacy & Investiture Crises
(Originally written March 17, 2006 in 3 Subject Book)
European Religious History
Struggles between kings and popes
Investiture Contest/Controversies
-Henry IV of German vs. Pope Gregory VII
Kings vs. Popes
1) Over Investiture
John of England (1199-1216)
-lost Normandy to the French King, Philip Augustus (1204)
-excommunicated by Pope Innocent III over investiture controversy involving the Archbishop of Canterbury
2) Over Taxation of the Clergy
-Edward I of England (1290's)
-Philip IV (Philip the fair) of France (1285-1314) vs. Pope Boniface VIII (1294-1303)
- Papal Bull, 1296: the laity cannot tax the clergy
- Philip IV ignores the bull
- Pope Boniface VIII backed down, kings now have to ask permission to tax the clergy
3) Over Courts
- Battle between Philip IV & Pope Boniface VIII
- Boniface VIII issued bull, Unam Sanctum
-Philip IV's response:
-Used lawyers trained in Roman Law
-Roman Law: king is sovereign in all matters in his territory
-Philip IV planned to kidnap Boniface VIII and bring him to trial in France
-Caused the Crisis of the 14th Century (The Avignon Papacy)
The Crisis of the 14th Century
The Avignon Papacy (1305-1378)
-"The Babylonian Captivity of the Church"
-Pope Clement V (1305-1314) through Pope Gregory XI (1370-1378)
-Pope Gregory died in Rome in 1378 bringing an end to the Avignon Papacy
-Led to the Great Schism (1378-1417)
European Religious History
Struggles between kings and popes
Investiture Contest/Controversies
-Henry IV of German vs. Pope Gregory VII
Kings vs. Popes
1) Over Investiture
John of England (1199-1216)
-lost Normandy to the French King, Philip Augustus (1204)
-excommunicated by Pope Innocent III over investiture controversy involving the Archbishop of Canterbury
2) Over Taxation of the Clergy
-Edward I of England (1290's)
-Philip IV (Philip the fair) of France (1285-1314) vs. Pope Boniface VIII (1294-1303)
- Papal Bull, 1296: the laity cannot tax the clergy
- Philip IV ignores the bull
- Pope Boniface VIII backed down, kings now have to ask permission to tax the clergy
3) Over Courts
- Battle between Philip IV & Pope Boniface VIII
- Boniface VIII issued bull, Unam Sanctum
-Philip IV's response:
-Used lawyers trained in Roman Law
-Roman Law: king is sovereign in all matters in his territory
-Philip IV planned to kidnap Boniface VIII and bring him to trial in France
-Caused the Crisis of the 14th Century (The Avignon Papacy)
The Crisis of the 14th Century
The Avignon Papacy (1305-1378)
-"The Babylonian Captivity of the Church"
-Pope Clement V (1305-1314) through Pope Gregory XI (1370-1378)
-Pope Gregory died in Rome in 1378 bringing an end to the Avignon Papacy
-Led to the Great Schism (1378-1417)
Wednesday, March 15, 2006
Brief notes on Pope Gregory VII
(Originally written March 15, 2006 in 3 Subject)
European Religious History
Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085)
-Radical reformer
-Investiture controversy
-Lay investiture
-Argued with King Henry IV of Germany
-Excommunication of Henry IV, implications in feudal society
-Investiture controversy continued through the 11th to 14th centuries
European Religious History
Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085)
-Radical reformer
-Investiture controversy
-Lay investiture
-Argued with King Henry IV of Germany
-Excommunication of Henry IV, implications in feudal society
-Investiture controversy continued through the 11th to 14th centuries
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)