The Religious Development of the Jews

The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell

Book Two Catholic Philosophy

Introduction

The Middle Ages was dominated by the Church and thus intellectual thought was also dominated by churchmen.

There is a dualism present in the Middle Ages, the dualism of clergy and laity, of Latin & Teuton, of the kingdom of this world and the kingdom of God, of spirit of flesh and of Pope and Emperor.

The early part of the Middle Ages is dominated by Augustine and Plato. The latter part is dominated with St. Thomas Aquinas and Aristotle.

The misery of the Middle Ages "heightened the intensity of religious feeling". Nothing in the world which was full of death and war and strife was of value except for virtue because that steadfast virtue would lead to eternal bliss.

Part I. The Fathers

Ch. I The Religious Development of the Jews

"The Christian religion, as it was handed over by the late Roman Empire to the barbarians,
consisted of three elements: first, certain philosophical beliefs, derived mainly from Plato and
the Neoplatonists, but also in part from the Stoics; second, a conception of morals and history
derived from the Jews; and thirdly, certain theories, more especially as to salvation, which were
on the whole new in Christianity, though in part traceable to Orphism, and to kindred cults of
the Near East" (Russell, 308).

The most important Jewish elements in Christianity according to Russell:
1. A sacred history that justifies the ways of God to man
2. The existence of a select few whom God especially loves, i.e. The Chosen People or the elect
3. A new concept of what is righteousness. Practical philanthropy as part of the Christian concept of virtue comes from the Jews.
4. The Law
5. The Messiah, the Christians simply moved the prosperity from a temporal plane to a heavenly one
6. The Kingdom of Heaven

Judaism became different from other contemporary religions when it became exclusive and monotheistic. "Jeremiah and Ezekiel, especially, seem to have invented the idea that all religions except one are false, and that the Lord punishes idolatry" (Russell, 310).

The captivity periods in Jewish history were understood to be a justification of the nationalistic and doomsday prophets of earlier times.

The Jews looked to God as a parental relationship and the Jews could be purified through God's punishment.

Judaism also moved from a sacrificial religion to a non-sacrificial one when the Temple was destroyed.

Isaiah greatly increased the belief in a Messiah, possibly as a result of Persian influence.

The Hellenization of Jews was difficult. Jerusalem fell in between the Seleucid and the Ptolemies. When in 175 B.C. the Seleucid king Antiochus IV sought to fully hellenize the Jews he was met with resistance. In 170 B.C. the Jews revolted. This is the history told in the First Book of Maccabees.

It was during this time that the Jews started to believe in an immortality in order to account for the good suffering and the belief that God would reward the good.

Some Jews living in the diaspora were hellenized, but the survival of Judaism is the result of brave Jews in Jerusalem who fought to preserve the original and uniqueness of their monotheistic faith.

The Jewish focus on the Law made them an intensely conservative group.

Both Jews and Christians think a lot about sin, but Christians thought of themselves as sinners while Jews mainly did not.

After the Roman destruction of the Temple in AD 70 the Jews of the Diaspora became increasingly important, especially the very Hellenized Jews of Alexandria.

Philo, a contemporary of Christ, is the perfect illustration of Greek influence on Jews. Philo was orthodox in his religion and a Platonist in his philosophy. He was very important to the early Christian Fathers.

Brief Notes on II Chronicles 1-36

(Originally Written June 7, 2008 in the Journal)

Oh Lord God Almighty, look upon me with pity! See how your servant wallows in agony! My wife has left me and now the door is closing on remaining physically close to her. I see that there is a divine will for me to leave this place. I clung to her too greatly and now I have been stripped of hope in early reconciliation.

Where do you want me Lord? I think about Taylor in my head. If this is your doing make it clear, but if this is just my association with the familiar make that known too. I will go where you lead.

Today I will call my father and seek his advice on this matter. Give him your words so that I may follow you. Lord do not abandon me or forsake me. I need you to be my strength for I have none of my own. Lord grant me the wisdom to make the righteous choice and the discernment to hear your voice and know it is you.

Notes on II Chronicles

Chapter 1 - Solomon is granted wisdom and discernment as well as riches and power by God.

Chapter 2 - Solomon makes preparation for building the Temple.

Chapter 3 - They build the Temple

Chapter 4 - The Temple is ornamented

Chapter 5 - The Temple is dedicated

Chapter 6 - Solomon prays to God before Israel

Chapter 7 - God answers Solomon's prayer

Chapter 8 - Solomon rebuilt and fortified cities

Chapter 9 -

The queen of Sheba visited Solomon to test his wisdom. Many kings sought an audience with Solomon and paid him tribute. Solomon reigned 40 years and died.

Chapter 10 - Israel rebelled against Solomon's son Rehoboam and nation split.

Chapter 11 - Rehoboam fortified Judah. He had 28 sons.

Chapter 12 - Rehoboam turned from the Lord. The Lord punished Judah by raising up Egypt against them.

Chapter 13 -

Abijah succeeded his father Rehoboam as king of Judah. Abijah defeated Jeroboam, king of Israel, because the Judahites called upon the Lord.

Asa, son of Abijah succeeded him as king of Judah.

Chapter 14 -

Asa followed the Lord.
Judah defeated Zerah the Ethiopian king and his force of a million strong.

Chapter 15 - Asa removed idols from Judah

Chapter 16  - Asa sinned by trusting the king of Aram when Israel attacked Judah.

Chapter 17

Jehoshaphat succeeded Asa as king of Judah. Jehoshaphat pleased the Lord. He fortified the cities of Judah and the surrounding nations feared the Lord on his account.

Chapter 18

Jehoshaphat and Ahab, king of Israel, went to battle against Aram. They were defeated  and Ahab died.

Chapter 19 - Jehoshaphat set up judges to bring order and peace to Judah.

Chapter 20 - Jehoshaphat prayed to the Lord for a vast army had been assembled against Judah. The Lord caused the army to fight amongst itself and the Judahites took the plunder.

Chapter 21 -

Jehoram succeeded his father Jehoshaphat as king of Judah. Jehoram was evil and practiced idolatry. The Lord raised Edom and Libnah against Judah for Jehoram's wickedness. Jehoram died and was buried in the city of David, but not as a king.

Chapter 22 -

Ahaziah became king of Judah. He was the youngest son of Jehoram. Ahaziah did evil in the sight of the Lord. Ahaziah was cut down by Jehu, who the Lord had appointed to overthrow the house of Ahab in Israel.

Athaliah, the mother of Ahaziah took over Judah by killing the royal family. Only Jehosheba, the youngest son of Ahaziah was spared and that was because he was hidden.

Chapter 23 - After eight years of the reign of Athaliah, Jehosheba was named king. He was crowned king and Athaliah was killed.

Chapter 24 -

Joash and the priest Jehoida restored the Temple of the Lord and reinforced it. Jehoida lived to 130 years old and died. He was buried with the kings for his service to the Lord.

Joash turned from God after the death of Jehoida and even had Jehoida's son Zechariah stoned to death after he prophesied against him.

Joash was killed by conspirators. He was not buried as a king.

Chapter 25

Amaziah replaced his father Joash as king of Judah. He pleased the Lord but did not serve God wholeheartedly. He conquered Seir but brough back their gods to worship. For this he was punished.

Amaziah, filled with pride went to war with King Joash of Israel. He was soundly defeated. Amaziah fled to Lachish but was cut down there.

Chapter 26

Uzziah became king after his father Amaziah was killed. Uzziah fortified Jerusalem and gathered a large army to him. He was feared among the nations. When Uzziah became strong he became too proud and burnt incense to the Lord. As a result he received leprosy and was a leper until the day he died.

Chapter 27

Jotham succeeded his father Uzziah as king of Judah. Jotham pleased the Lord, but the people were sinful.

Chapter 28

Ahaz succeeded his father Jotham as king. Ahaz did not please the Lord and worshipped Baal. As a result Judah fell to Aram and then to Israel in war. Ahaz set up more high places to the gods of Aram and further angered the Lord.

Chapter 29

Hezekiah, son of Ahaz became king of Judah. Hezekiah summoned the Levites to restore the Temple of the Lord. Hezekiah had a sin offering for all of Israel prepared.

Chapter 30

Hezekiah called for all of Judah and Israel to celebrate Passover in Jerusalem.

"Be not obstinate, as your fathers were; extend your hands to the Lord and come to his sanctuary that he has consecrated forever and serve the Lord your God, that he may turn away his burning anger from you" (II Chronicles 30:8, New American Bible).

Chapter 31 - Hezekiah reestablished the prescribed order in the priesthood.

Chapter 32

Sennacherib, king of Assyria besieged Jerusalem and mocked the Lord. Isaiah the prophet and King Hezekiah prayed to the Lord. The Lord sent an angel who defeated the Assyrian invaders. Sennacherib returned home and was killed in the temple of his god by his own family.

Hezekiah died and was buried as a king.

Chapter 33

Manasseh became king at age twelve and reigned, wickedly, for fifty five years.

Manasseh provoked the Lord to great anger with idolatry, immolations, divination and spirit worship.

Manasseh repented after being taken captive by the Babylonians.

Amon succeeded him as king of Judah. Amon was even more wicked than his father Manasseh. He did not repent and was killed by his subjects.

Josiah, the son of Amon became king of Judah.

Chapter 34

Josiah served the Lord. He destroyed the high places and destroyed the temple of Baal.

Josiah restored the Temple of the Lord. While restoring the Temple, the book of the Law of Moses was found.

Josiah renewed the covenant with the Lord.

Chapter 35

Josiah held Passover that had not been seen since the time of Samuel (as was prescribed in the book of the Law).

Josiah was killed in battle against Neco, the Pharaoh of Egypt.

Chapter 36

Jehoahaz replaced his father as king of Judah. Jehoahaz reigned only three months before being kidnapped by Neco.

Jehoiakim, his brother became king. Jehoiakim was defeated by Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon.

Jehoiachin, son of Jehoiakim became king. Jehoiachin was evil and was carried away by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon.

Zedekiah, the brother of Jehoiachin became king. Zedekiah was evil and did not humble himself in front of the Lord's prophet Jeremiah.

Babylon came down and destroyed the Temple and slaughtered many. The survivors were carried off to Babylon.

Years later, the Persian king, Cyrus, who defeated the Babylonians, released the Judahites to go home to Jerusalem.

Our father, who art in Heaven, hallowed be thy name. Thy kingdom come, thy will be done, on earth as it is in Heaven. Give us this day our daily bread and forgive us our trespasses as we forgive those who trespass against us. Lead us not into temptation but deliver us from evil. For thine is the kingdom, the glory and the power forever and ever, Amen.

Thank you Lord for this day. May you continue to comfort me through the night.

Class Notes on the Pre-Socratics

(Originally Written August 31, 2006 in History I)

Class Notes

"Chris' [paper] is a bit wordy and while he produces warm feelings in my heart, he gets the same amount of points" - Jim Spiegel

Major periods of Ancient Philosophy:

1. Pre-Socratic (6th-5th Century B.C.)
- interested with cosmology and physical philosophy

2. Socratic (5th-4th Century B.C.)
-Socrates, Plato & Aristotle
-mostly focused on ethics

3. Hellenistic (3rd century B.C. - Middle Ages)
-Stoicism, Cynicism, Epicureanism, Skepticism

4. Philosophy of the Roman Empire (1st Century B.C. - Middle Ages)
-Stoicism, Neo-Platonism, Early Christian, Neo-Aristotelian, Hellenistic branches

Pre-Socratic Problems:

1. The problem of the one and the many
-Metaphysical: one substance vs. many substances
-Epistemological: universal vs. particulars (what do I know?)

2. The problem of permanence and change
-Metaphysical: flux vs. permanence (What is reality?)
-Epistemological: How do I know perpetual flux or permanence?

Milesian Philosophers:

Thales (circa 624 BC - 546 BC)

-contemporary of Jeremiah, alive during the fall of Jerusalem
-did not write anything
-predicted an eclipse of the sun in 585 BC
-redirected a river for the Ionians during a struggle with Persia
-geometrician of note
-cornered the olive oil market
-very few fragments of his teaching survive:
 "all things are water", "all things are full of soul"
-he was a monist, monism: all reality is made of one stuff
-for Thales, the one stuff was water
-he was a materialist, nothing beyond the physical world exists, everything is matter.
-he was a hylozoist, hylozoism - all material substances have life in them
-he was a naturalist, using naturalistic explanations and mechanistic approaches to problems

Anaximander (circa 610 BC - 545 BC)

-pupil of Thales
-engineer/traveler
-first Greek cartographer
-invented the sun dial
-believed in a catastrophic flood because there were marine fossils in the mountains
-believed that life began in the moist of the world
-early evolutionary theorist
-wrote a treatise
-he was a monist, "apeiron" (the boundless) was his one substance.
-The boundless was natural matter with no determinant qualities, it was an eternal substance
-held a cyclical cosmology - periodic creation and destruction of the universe
-he was naturalistic and mechanistic in approach

Anaximenes (circa 585 BC - 525 BC)

-he was a monist, air was his one stuff/substance
-he accounted for change: Fire <-> Air <-> Wind <-> Water <-> Earth <-> Stone
-he was naturalistic and mechanistic in approach
-he was a materialist

Other Pre-Socratics

Heraclitus (circa 544 BC - 484 BC)

-From Ephesus
-aristocratic
-poet/philosopher
-taught Cratylus (Plato named a dialogue after Cratylus)
-wrote in aphorisms
-known as "the obscure"
-pantheistic to varying degrees
-held a low view of humanity and was very pessimistic

1. Basic Cosmic Elements were not primary
2. Divine Fire - most basic/primary substance (Restless fire)
3. Flux - the constant change
4. Logos - the pattern of life, "formula", "Ratio", "Word", "Pattern"
5. Tension of opposites - strife
6. Human Nature - Ethics, the human soul is part of the Divine Fire and will return to the Divine Fire after death

The Religious Development of the Jews

(Originally written July 16, 2006 in Book 5)

The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell

Chapter I - The Religious Development of the Jews

"The Christian religion, as it was handed over by the late Roman Empire to the Barbarians consisted of three elements: first, certain philosophical beliefs, derived mainly from Plato and the Neoplatonists, but also in part from the Stoics; second, a conception of morals and history derived from the Jews; and thirdly, certain theories, more especially as to salvation, were on the whole new in Christianity though in part traceable to Orphism, and to kindred cults of the Near East" (Russell, 308).

Russell believes these six things are the most important Jewish elements in Christianity:
1) A sacred history: from Creation to an end in the future, with it a way of justifying God's ways to man.
2) The Existence a small section of mankind who God specially loves.
3) A new conception of righteousness
4) The Law
5) The Messiah
6) The Kingdom of Heaven

Linehan - if the Messiah is the fifth most important thing Christianity got from Jewish tradition than Christianity is merely a philosophical theory and not a very consistent one. Actually, Russell is just way off. Without Christ (the Messiah) there would be no Christianity. The most important thing Christianity took from Judaism is obviously Christ himself.

Jewish religion undertook a drastic change when they were in captivity.

The 1st commandment: Thou shalt have no other gods before me' was a new innovation in religion. Monotheism in a strict sense was very new.

"Jeremiah and Ezekiel seem to invented the idea that all religions except one are false, and that the Lord punished idolatry" (Russell, 310).

The Jewish religion became exclusive and fiercely nationalistic. The Jews distinguished themselves from other ancient peoples through fierce national pride. Unlike all other ancient peoples, the Jews never conformed when they were conquered.

Sidenote: It's hard to take Russell's words seriously because he is misrepresenting when the Books of the Old Testament were written. Russell claims that the Law was written post-exile, in order to preserve national unity. He claims the Book of Isaiah is written by two prophets - one pre-exile and one post-exile. The second prophet, 'Deuteron-Isaiah' is what is used in Messianic prophecies by Christians. Sidenote done.

The Jewish kingdom remained a small theocracy state after Ezra and Nehemiah. The theocracy existed around Jerusalem and was a disputed territory between the Ptolemies and Seleucids.

The Jews lived under their own rule for a while until the Seleucid king, King Antiochus IV was determined to hellenize his whole kingdom. The Jews rebelled against Antiochus IV in 170 B.C. when the Seleucids fought against Egypt. Then, Antiochus identified Yahweh with Zeus and the Jews everywhere outside of Jerusalem rebelled. This caused the Maccabean revolution. This is also (Russell contends) when Jews began to fully adhere to their strict morality.

Russell attacks religion by belittling the Jews belief and pointing out 'trivial' things they fought for. "The Jews of this time showed immense heroism, although in defense of things that do not strike us as important, such as circumcision and the wickedness of eating pork" (Russell, 316).

King Herod replaced the Maccabees through Marc Antony's help. The Jews didn't like him but suffered him well. The Zealots wanted to overthrow him and Roman rule entirely however.

In A.D. 66 the Zealots got the revolt they were looking for but were defeated and the Jewish Temple was destroyed in A.D. 70.

Philo, a Jewish philosopher who lived around the time of Christ is the best illustration of how a Jew can be influenced by Greek thought. Phil was orthodox in religion, but Platonic in philosophy. He was used by the Church Fathers to reconcile the Scriptures with Greek thought.

Highlights of Acts, James, Calvinism vs. Arminianism & Galatians

(Originally written on January 17, 2006 in Book 20)

Highlights in the Book of Acts

Acts 2 - Birth of the Church

Church = New Testament People of God
Israel = Old Testament People of God

Acts 6 - Prototypes of Deacons/Elders

The 12 - Prototypes of elders/bishops

Functions of the Elders/Bishops
1) Teaching the word
2) Prayer

The Seven = The prototypes of deacons/deaconesses

Acts 8 - Persecuted church scatters
Acts 9 - Paul's conversion
Acts 10 - Gospel to the Gentiles
Acts 12 - James is Martyred
Acts 14 - 1st Missionary Journey
Acts 15 - The Jerusalem Council
-Must Gentile Christians keep the Law in order to be saved as the Judaizers insist?
Acts 15:39-18:22 - 2nd Missionary Journey
Acts 18:23-21:27 - 3rd Missionary Journey
Acts 21:27-23:32 - Imprisoned in Jerusalem
Acts 23:33-26:32 - Imprisoned in Caesera
Acts 27-28 - Voyage to Rome
Acts 28:16-30 - Roman imprisonment

The Book of James:

Author: James, brother of Jesus (oldest)
- Did not believe in Jesus
- Jesus appeared to him post resurrection
- Very religious Jew
Galatians 2:12/Acts 21:17-26

Recipients:
-Jewish believers who scattered after Stephen's death
-Only epistle strictly written to a Jewish audience

Date:
- Earliest Christian document
- Josephus records James' martyrdom in AD 62
- Makes no reference to Judaizing controversy (AD 49)
- Approximately written AD 46-47

Focus of James: The practical outworking of Christianity in a righteous lifestyle

Emphases
1) Patience in the face of suffering
2) How the rich treat the poor
3) Judgment and judging

James & Paul on role of works in salvation:
- Both James & Paul affirm good deeds and are against bad deeds
- Both use the Greek word "erga" (works) but use it differently

James 2:14-26 has a particular kind of works in view
- Good deeds like acts of charity, generosity, impartiality, control of tongue, etc
- His opponents were claiming orthodoxy without action

Paul opposes "works" as in works of the Law
- Stops people from attempting to obtain salvation through the Law, which is impossible

Calvinism vs. Arminianism

Total Depravity vs. Free will/human ability
Unconditional Election vs. Conditional election
Limited Atonement vs. Unlimited Atonement
Irresistible Grace vs. Resistible grace
Perseverance of the Saints vs. Can fall from grace

Calvinism justifies Unconditional Depravity by Romans 3:10, Jeremiah 17:9, Ephesians 4:18 and Ecclesiastes 7:20. We are unable to save ourselves and will never choose Christ on our own.

Arminianism justifies free will/human ability by John 1:9 and Titus 2:11

Calvinism justifies unconditional election by Romans 8:29-30, Romans 9:11-18, Acts 13:48. Foreknew = Forechosen. God chooses man, man does not choose God.

Arminianism justifies conditional election via Romans 8:29. Foreknew = Foresaw. God foresaw who would choose Him.

Calvinism justifies limited atonement with John 10:10, John 10:15, John 17:2, John 17:6, John 17:9. Christ only died for the elect.

Arminianism justifies unlimited atonement with 1 John 2:2, 1 Timothy 4:10, 2 Peter 2:1 and 2 Corinthians 5:19. Christ died for all men.

Calvinism justifies irresistible grace with Romans 9:19-21. Nobody can resist God's will.

Arminianism justifies resistible grace with 1 John 2:2, 1 Timothy 4:10, 2 Peter 2:1, 2 Corinthians 5:19. God can be resisted.

Calvinism justifies Perseverance of the saints with Philippians 2:12-13, John 10:27-30, Romans 8:38-39. Salvation is secure.

Arminianism justifies can fall from grace with Hebrews 6:4-6, Hebrews 10:26-31, 1 Corinthians 9:27, Romans 8:38-39, Romans 11:22. Salvation can be lost.

Introduction to Galatians

Dualism: Body doesn't matter, do whatever. Soul is what counts.

Two Extremes of dualism:
Antinomianism - over indulgence
Asceticism - no pleasure at all, minimalism

If Paul was concerned about distortions of the gospel, we should too.

Problem behind letter to Galatians.

Jewish Christian teachers infiltrated the Galatian churches with a message that endangered the Gospel message. They were Judaizers.

Judaizers sought to complete Paul's gospel in two ways.
1) by requiring circumcision
2) by enforcing Jewish food laws