From Goodreads
Bhagavad Gita
Translated by Barbara Stoler Miller
I've been on a bit of a mythology kick. This led me to the path of the Mahabharata. While interesting and philosophically impressive, I was expecting something less Scriptural and more action packed. It felt a lot like reading Proverbs when I was expecting Genesis. I understand that this is the fault of the reader and not a reflection of the writer, but had this been a longer text it might have kicked the mythology bug right out of me.
Showing posts with label Hinduism. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Hinduism. Show all posts
Thursday, June 27, 2019
Sunday, April 29, 2007
The Future in Eastern Religions vs. Christianity
(Originally written April 29, 2007 in Book 15)
The Future in Eastern Religions
Hinduism
Hinduism conceives time as cyclical. Currently we are living in the last age of the last era, the Kali Yuga.
At the close of this era Kalki will appear. Kali is the 10th and final incarnation of Vishnu. Kali will convert the whole world to the dharma and destroy Yama, the god of death.
Kalki and other Indic messiahs do not bring about the end of time. They only initiate the end of an age.
Eliade points out salvation is constituted by an escape from time, not a culmination of time.
Buddhism
The Bodhisattva (Buddha-in-waiting) Maitreya vowed to return as the Buddha of the next age.
Maitreya will bring about a time of universal enlightenment.
After the time of Maitreya a new era will follow and the cycle will restart.
Jainism
The final age will be the dusama dusama, a period of abject misery, no Tirthankaras, no religion and universal suffering.
Time then will begin ascending upwards again.
There will be 25 new Tirthankaras (counterparts to the other 25).
Salvation in Jainism is found in the escape from time.
The Future in Christianity
Christianity was born of fulfilled messianic expectations.
Christians used other Old Testament Messianic prophesies to corroborate the idea that Christ will come again.
Christianity possesses a powerful notion of now and not-yet.
Jesus Christ is central to Christianity in both the historical and spiritual dimensions.
Christ has four roles:
1) Teacher
2) Redeemer
3) Mystical Reality
4) Future King
The incarnation of God in Christ is different than any incarnation of a god in any other religion.
Other religions have incarnations, i.e. the avatars of Vishnu. But these are docetism incarnations.
Docetism was an early Christian heresy which claimed Christ only appeared to be human.
Christianity holds that "Jesus is fully God, but also fully human, and he has not abdicated either nature" (Corduan, 192).
Authentication: The Crucial Issue
20th century Apologetics devised the Legend-Lunatic-Liar-Lord argument about Jesus and who he said he was.
The Jews of the 1st century had no problem in accepting Jesus as supernatural but saw him as evil. The Jews put Jesus to death because they saw him as demonic.
The Future in Eastern Religions
Hinduism
Hinduism conceives time as cyclical. Currently we are living in the last age of the last era, the Kali Yuga.
At the close of this era Kalki will appear. Kali is the 10th and final incarnation of Vishnu. Kali will convert the whole world to the dharma and destroy Yama, the god of death.
Kalki and other Indic messiahs do not bring about the end of time. They only initiate the end of an age.
Eliade points out salvation is constituted by an escape from time, not a culmination of time.
Buddhism
The Bodhisattva (Buddha-in-waiting) Maitreya vowed to return as the Buddha of the next age.
Maitreya will bring about a time of universal enlightenment.
After the time of Maitreya a new era will follow and the cycle will restart.
Jainism
The final age will be the dusama dusama, a period of abject misery, no Tirthankaras, no religion and universal suffering.
Time then will begin ascending upwards again.
There will be 25 new Tirthankaras (counterparts to the other 25).
Salvation in Jainism is found in the escape from time.
The Future in Christianity
Christianity was born of fulfilled messianic expectations.
Christians used other Old Testament Messianic prophesies to corroborate the idea that Christ will come again.
Christianity possesses a powerful notion of now and not-yet.
Jesus Christ is central to Christianity in both the historical and spiritual dimensions.
Christ has four roles:
1) Teacher
2) Redeemer
3) Mystical Reality
4) Future King
The incarnation of God in Christ is different than any incarnation of a god in any other religion.
Other religions have incarnations, i.e. the avatars of Vishnu. But these are docetism incarnations.
Docetism was an early Christian heresy which claimed Christ only appeared to be human.
Christianity holds that "Jesus is fully God, but also fully human, and he has not abdicated either nature" (Corduan, 192).
Authentication: The Crucial Issue
20th century Apologetics devised the Legend-Lunatic-Liar-Lord argument about Jesus and who he said he was.
The Jews of the 1st century had no problem in accepting Jesus as supernatural but saw him as evil. The Jews put Jesus to death because they saw him as demonic.
Monday, April 23, 2007
Eschatology in various religions
(Originally written April 23, 2007 in Book 15)
Chapter 7: Eschatology & Hope for the Future
Time plays crucial and different roles in various religions.
A Geometry of Time
The modern secular view of time is entirely linear. Time is a sequence of moments.
Most believe that time had some origin (whatever they claim it to be), but others like the physicist Stephen Hawkins deny that time has a beginning or an end.
Conversely, the Western monotheistic religions believe time has both a beginning and an end. In addition Judaism, Christianity, Islam and Zoroastrianism each have a mid point.
Pre-literate cultures believe that (according to Mircea Eliade) time was not linear, but circular. Time in our world mirrored the "time of the gods".
Eliade makes notice that as cultures move from preliterate to literate they drop the circular conception of, but not wholly. Anniversaries, holidays and birthdays are hold overs from circular time conceptions.
Eliade notes that archaic people (pre-Literates) have no hope or notion of the future. Likewise pure secularists have no hope for the future because they deny any telos (goal/end) for time.
Jainism's conception of time is divided into six ages and moves from best to worst then worst to best again.
Hinduism believes time is cyclical.
Buddhism also has a cyclical conception of time.
The Future in Traditional Religion
In African culture there are two modes of time:
1) Sasa - time of every day events
2) Zamani - Mythological time
People like in sass time. When they are born they are actualized into sass. When they die that actualization is completed and the process of de-actualization begins. As the ones who know them slowly die off the dead move further from the sasa into the zamani. Eventually they are engulfed in Zamani time.
Zamani gives purpose to sasa, but does not extend it.
The Christianization of Africa has taken two forms:
1) A traditional European style
2) A syncretism of traditional African religion and Christianity (independent churches).
The "independent churches" of Africa have adopted an eschatology, thus giving them hope for the future which traditional African conceptions of time denied them.
The Future in Western Religions
The future of Western Religions is tied into their messianic figures.
Judaism
Judaism had several messianic expectations by the time of Christ. Many the Messiah would liberate the Jews from Roman oppression and reestablish Israel.
The Essenes at Qumran expected at least two messiahs: a messianic king and a messianic priest.
The Saducees and the ruling priests might not have anticipated a messiah at all.
The messiah was expected to be human, but equal to God's first created being, the angel Metatron.
Also, the messiah would be the Son of David and heir to the throne.
The messiah would restore Israel politically and spiritually.
The messiah would liberate Jews from oppression.
Judaism has had a history of messianic pretenders. Bar Kokhba in the 2nd century and Sabbatai Zevi in the 17th century are the most notable two.
The Hasidic movement has shied away from claiming messianic status of their leaders and even opposed the creation of the modern state of Israel because they believed it was blasphemous to have Israel without a messianic king.
Reform Jews have given up the search for a Messiah.
Islam
Islam hopes for the Mahdi (the right guided one) as the last messenger of Allah.
The Mahdi is based on the Hadith, not the Qur'an.
The majority of Muslims are Sunni muslims and do not have a specific Mahdi theology.
The Shi'ite Muslims believe the Mahdi has a theological role.
Jesus Christ is the second most important prophet in Islam. Islam believes that Christ will return before the judgment and lead the faithful in prayer. But usually Jesus is not considered the Mahdi.
Shi'ite muslims claimed that the imams had the same spiritual authority as Muhammad. They have a super human standing.
The last imam to have this authority, according to the Shi'ites did not die, but went into hiding. He will return as the Mahdi.
Islam has had a number of Mahdi pretenders.
Umar II, one of the caliphs of the Umayyad dynasty was revered as the Mahdi for a while.
Mohammad Ahmad in the 19th century sought to overthrow the Ottoman Empire from Sudan. He claimed to be the Mahdi. His revolution was put down by the Turks, the British and a counter-Mahdi, Sanusi Al-Mahdi.
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian claimed to be the Mahdi, the second coming of Christ and an avatar of Krishna. There are two groups that follow his teaching still.
Baha'i began as an offshoot of Shi'ites.
The Bab claimed to be the Mahdi in 1844.
Baha'ullah declared himself to be the successor of the Bab and established Baha'i.
In the future another manifestation of God will follow if there needs to be one.
Zoroastrianism
Zoroaster is to be succeeded every 1,000 years by his direct descendants.
Three times, a thousand years apart, a virgin will bathe in the lake and become impersonated with his sperm.
Aushetar, Aushetar mah, and Saoshyant will be born as prophets like Zoroaster. Saoshyant will restore true religion and usher in the purification of all human beings.
Chapter 7: Eschatology & Hope for the Future
Time plays crucial and different roles in various religions.
A Geometry of Time
The modern secular view of time is entirely linear. Time is a sequence of moments.
Most believe that time had some origin (whatever they claim it to be), but others like the physicist Stephen Hawkins deny that time has a beginning or an end.
Conversely, the Western monotheistic religions believe time has both a beginning and an end. In addition Judaism, Christianity, Islam and Zoroastrianism each have a mid point.
Pre-literate cultures believe that (according to Mircea Eliade) time was not linear, but circular. Time in our world mirrored the "time of the gods".
Eliade makes notice that as cultures move from preliterate to literate they drop the circular conception of, but not wholly. Anniversaries, holidays and birthdays are hold overs from circular time conceptions.
Eliade notes that archaic people (pre-Literates) have no hope or notion of the future. Likewise pure secularists have no hope for the future because they deny any telos (goal/end) for time.
Jainism's conception of time is divided into six ages and moves from best to worst then worst to best again.
Hinduism believes time is cyclical.
Buddhism also has a cyclical conception of time.
The Future in Traditional Religion
In African culture there are two modes of time:
1) Sasa - time of every day events
2) Zamani - Mythological time
People like in sass time. When they are born they are actualized into sass. When they die that actualization is completed and the process of de-actualization begins. As the ones who know them slowly die off the dead move further from the sasa into the zamani. Eventually they are engulfed in Zamani time.
Zamani gives purpose to sasa, but does not extend it.
The Christianization of Africa has taken two forms:
1) A traditional European style
2) A syncretism of traditional African religion and Christianity (independent churches).
The "independent churches" of Africa have adopted an eschatology, thus giving them hope for the future which traditional African conceptions of time denied them.
The Future in Western Religions
The future of Western Religions is tied into their messianic figures.
Judaism
Judaism had several messianic expectations by the time of Christ. Many the Messiah would liberate the Jews from Roman oppression and reestablish Israel.
The Essenes at Qumran expected at least two messiahs: a messianic king and a messianic priest.
The Saducees and the ruling priests might not have anticipated a messiah at all.
The messiah was expected to be human, but equal to God's first created being, the angel Metatron.
Also, the messiah would be the Son of David and heir to the throne.
The messiah would restore Israel politically and spiritually.
The messiah would liberate Jews from oppression.
Judaism has had a history of messianic pretenders. Bar Kokhba in the 2nd century and Sabbatai Zevi in the 17th century are the most notable two.
The Hasidic movement has shied away from claiming messianic status of their leaders and even opposed the creation of the modern state of Israel because they believed it was blasphemous to have Israel without a messianic king.
Reform Jews have given up the search for a Messiah.
Islam
Islam hopes for the Mahdi (the right guided one) as the last messenger of Allah.
The Mahdi is based on the Hadith, not the Qur'an.
The majority of Muslims are Sunni muslims and do not have a specific Mahdi theology.
The Shi'ite Muslims believe the Mahdi has a theological role.
Jesus Christ is the second most important prophet in Islam. Islam believes that Christ will return before the judgment and lead the faithful in prayer. But usually Jesus is not considered the Mahdi.
Shi'ite muslims claimed that the imams had the same spiritual authority as Muhammad. They have a super human standing.
The last imam to have this authority, according to the Shi'ites did not die, but went into hiding. He will return as the Mahdi.
Islam has had a number of Mahdi pretenders.
Umar II, one of the caliphs of the Umayyad dynasty was revered as the Mahdi for a while.
Mohammad Ahmad in the 19th century sought to overthrow the Ottoman Empire from Sudan. He claimed to be the Mahdi. His revolution was put down by the Turks, the British and a counter-Mahdi, Sanusi Al-Mahdi.
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian claimed to be the Mahdi, the second coming of Christ and an avatar of Krishna. There are two groups that follow his teaching still.
Baha'i began as an offshoot of Shi'ites.
The Bab claimed to be the Mahdi in 1844.
Baha'ullah declared himself to be the successor of the Bab and established Baha'i.
In the future another manifestation of God will follow if there needs to be one.
Zoroastrianism
Zoroaster is to be succeeded every 1,000 years by his direct descendants.
Three times, a thousand years apart, a virgin will bathe in the lake and become impersonated with his sperm.
Aushetar, Aushetar mah, and Saoshyant will be born as prophets like Zoroaster. Saoshyant will restore true religion and usher in the purification of all human beings.
Friday, April 20, 2007
Philosophy of Religion - Hick: Ch. 10
(Originally written April 20, 2007 in Book 7)
Philosophy of Religion
John H. Hick
Chapter 10 - Human Destiny: Karma and Reincarnation
The Popular Concept
It is common in the West to believe in a single birth and death. But, in Hindu culture it is common to believe in an endless cycle of life.
The East will point to the difficulty in Western thought of a divine all-Good God and inequality of birth as contradictory. Hindu thought makes inequality of bird a natural consequence of a previous life.
There are three main strands of personal identity in a human being:
1) a connecting thread of memory
2) a bodily continuity
3) a psychological continuity of mental dispositions
A connecting thread of memory and bodily continuity are lost in reincarnation; but, a psychological continuity of mental dispositions is retained.
The criteria of reincarnation verifiability is too broad. If simply claiming that because I have the same personality traits as some one who died a long time ago makes me the reincarnation for that person then I could be the reincarnation of anyone.
The Vedantic Conception
In Vedantic Hinduism, Brahman is the ultimate reality beyond all equalities.
Brahman expresses itself through the existence of the material universe (maya) which is temporary and finite.
Each individual soul (jiva) is a manifestation of maya. Both the maya and jiva are illusionary.
Brahman is like space. Jiva is like a jar. The space inside the jar is the true reality of the jar. Once the jar is broken the space inside the jar converges with all of space. Thus, once finite existence is overcome the self can merge with the real self. Jiva can merge with Brahman.
Hindus believe in reincarnation for three reasons:
1) It is revealed in the Vedas
2) It makes sense of many aspects of life
3) There are fragmentary memories of former lives and fuller memories in those who achieve moksha (liberation and enlightenment)
A Demythologized Interpretation
Karma can be conceived of as a collective, non-individual force. In this way it is a moral truth.
Thus, we are not monadic individuals, but mutually interacting parts of one human world.
"Most western philosophers would probably have no difficulty accepting the last form of reincarnation doctrine, for it is a vivid affirmation of humanity" (Hick, 143).
Fin.
Philosophy of Religion
John H. Hick
Chapter 10 - Human Destiny: Karma and Reincarnation
The Popular Concept
It is common in the West to believe in a single birth and death. But, in Hindu culture it is common to believe in an endless cycle of life.
The East will point to the difficulty in Western thought of a divine all-Good God and inequality of birth as contradictory. Hindu thought makes inequality of bird a natural consequence of a previous life.
There are three main strands of personal identity in a human being:
1) a connecting thread of memory
2) a bodily continuity
3) a psychological continuity of mental dispositions
A connecting thread of memory and bodily continuity are lost in reincarnation; but, a psychological continuity of mental dispositions is retained.
The criteria of reincarnation verifiability is too broad. If simply claiming that because I have the same personality traits as some one who died a long time ago makes me the reincarnation for that person then I could be the reincarnation of anyone.
The Vedantic Conception
In Vedantic Hinduism, Brahman is the ultimate reality beyond all equalities.
Brahman expresses itself through the existence of the material universe (maya) which is temporary and finite.
Each individual soul (jiva) is a manifestation of maya. Both the maya and jiva are illusionary.
Brahman is like space. Jiva is like a jar. The space inside the jar is the true reality of the jar. Once the jar is broken the space inside the jar converges with all of space. Thus, once finite existence is overcome the self can merge with the real self. Jiva can merge with Brahman.
Hindus believe in reincarnation for three reasons:
1) It is revealed in the Vedas
2) It makes sense of many aspects of life
3) There are fragmentary memories of former lives and fuller memories in those who achieve moksha (liberation and enlightenment)
A Demythologized Interpretation
Karma can be conceived of as a collective, non-individual force. In this way it is a moral truth.
Thus, we are not monadic individuals, but mutually interacting parts of one human world.
"Most western philosophers would probably have no difficulty accepting the last form of reincarnation doctrine, for it is a vivid affirmation of humanity" (Hick, 143).
Fin.
Thursday, April 19, 2007
Philosophy of Religion - Hick: Ch. 8 (A)
(Originally written April 19, 2007 in Book 7)
Philosophy of Religion
John H. Hick
Chapter 8 - The Conflicting Truth Claims of Different Religions
Many Faiths, All claiming to be true
Nearly every religion claims to be true, exclusively.
There cannot be multiple exclusively true religions.
These exclusivity claims of religious has led to widespread skepticism about all religions.
W.A. Christian's Analysis
W.A. Christian differentiates between a proposal for belief and a factual assertion.
Major Belief Proposals:
Jesus is Messiah
Atman is Brahman
Allah is merciful
All the Buddhas are one.
Do these belief proposals really contradict one another?
Christianity claims that Jesus is the Messiah and that the Jews hold that the Messiah is still expected. This appears to be two contrary statements.
But the conception of Messiah is different is Christianity and Judaism. Thus, the Jewish denial that Jesus is the Messiah does not contradict with the Christian assertion that He is the Messiah.
Wittgenstein claimed that each religion was its own unique and distinct language-game. Thus, nothing in Christianity can agree with or disagree with anything in Buddhism, etc.
Critique of the Concept of a "religion"
Wilfred Cantrell Smith challenges the traditional concept of religion. He claims that religion (an empirical entity) can be traced historically and mapped geographically. He holds that religion is a human phenomenon. Cantrell Smith claims that naming religions occurred in the Enlightenment of Europe (except for Islam).
He holds it is inappropriate to speak of religions as true or false. They are merely expressions of the diversity of human types and temperaments and thought forms.
He maintains that the complex religions developed differently because it was impossible to overcome cultural-historical boundaries because of poor communications.
Now that these boundaries are overcome-able, a new form of religious thinking can arise.
Toward a possible solution:
The human being is a naturally religious animal.
The world religions developed gradually as man's religious life evolved.
The multiplicity of religion in ancient times was inevitable because people were locked into geographic regions.
All the world's religions may be rooted in contact with the same ultimate reality, but that the different ways of relating to said reality developed because of geographic-historic-sociocultural circumstances.
The future developments of the World's religions (because of the One Worldedness of today's society) may be headed towards a unification.
There are three main points concerning varying truth claims of religions:
1) Differing modes of experiencing the ultimate reality
2) Differing philosophical and theological theory concerning the ultimate reality and the implications of religious experience
3) differing revelatory experiences that unify religious experience and thought
The most important difference is the experience of a personal deity and an impersonal one.
These personal and impersonal deities are anon-contradictory, but complementary. All religions hold the ultimate reality to be outside the scope of finite human categories.
Theology and philosophy are ever evolving. There is no one reason to deny that in a One World culture that the theological and philosophical differences may dissolve during subsequent development.
The differing revelatory experiences of the World religions is the most difficult difference to dissolve.
Christianity faces a difficulty in asserting the infinite love of God and that only those who have faith in Christ will have everlasting life. These seem incompatible.
"It seems that if the tension at the heart of the traditional Christian attitude to non-Christian faiths is to be resolved, Christian thinkers must give even more radical though to the problem than they have yet done" (Hick, 118).
This is the epitome of arrogant intellectualism. John H. Hick is demanding that a rigorously developed theological philosophical detail be dropped after 2,000 plus years of development!
Philosophy of Religion
John H. Hick
Chapter 8 - The Conflicting Truth Claims of Different Religions
Many Faiths, All claiming to be true
Nearly every religion claims to be true, exclusively.
There cannot be multiple exclusively true religions.
These exclusivity claims of religious has led to widespread skepticism about all religions.
W.A. Christian's Analysis
W.A. Christian differentiates between a proposal for belief and a factual assertion.
Major Belief Proposals:
Jesus is Messiah
Atman is Brahman
Allah is merciful
All the Buddhas are one.
Do these belief proposals really contradict one another?
Christianity claims that Jesus is the Messiah and that the Jews hold that the Messiah is still expected. This appears to be two contrary statements.
But the conception of Messiah is different is Christianity and Judaism. Thus, the Jewish denial that Jesus is the Messiah does not contradict with the Christian assertion that He is the Messiah.
Wittgenstein claimed that each religion was its own unique and distinct language-game. Thus, nothing in Christianity can agree with or disagree with anything in Buddhism, etc.
Critique of the Concept of a "religion"
Wilfred Cantrell Smith challenges the traditional concept of religion. He claims that religion (an empirical entity) can be traced historically and mapped geographically. He holds that religion is a human phenomenon. Cantrell Smith claims that naming religions occurred in the Enlightenment of Europe (except for Islam).
He holds it is inappropriate to speak of religions as true or false. They are merely expressions of the diversity of human types and temperaments and thought forms.
He maintains that the complex religions developed differently because it was impossible to overcome cultural-historical boundaries because of poor communications.
Now that these boundaries are overcome-able, a new form of religious thinking can arise.
Toward a possible solution:
The human being is a naturally religious animal.
The world religions developed gradually as man's religious life evolved.
The multiplicity of religion in ancient times was inevitable because people were locked into geographic regions.
All the world's religions may be rooted in contact with the same ultimate reality, but that the different ways of relating to said reality developed because of geographic-historic-sociocultural circumstances.
The future developments of the World's religions (because of the One Worldedness of today's society) may be headed towards a unification.
There are three main points concerning varying truth claims of religions:
1) Differing modes of experiencing the ultimate reality
2) Differing philosophical and theological theory concerning the ultimate reality and the implications of religious experience
3) differing revelatory experiences that unify religious experience and thought
The most important difference is the experience of a personal deity and an impersonal one.
These personal and impersonal deities are anon-contradictory, but complementary. All religions hold the ultimate reality to be outside the scope of finite human categories.
Theology and philosophy are ever evolving. There is no one reason to deny that in a One World culture that the theological and philosophical differences may dissolve during subsequent development.
The differing revelatory experiences of the World religions is the most difficult difference to dissolve.
Christianity faces a difficulty in asserting the infinite love of God and that only those who have faith in Christ will have everlasting life. These seem incompatible.
"It seems that if the tension at the heart of the traditional Christian attitude to non-Christian faiths is to be resolved, Christian thinkers must give even more radical though to the problem than they have yet done" (Hick, 118).
This is the epitome of arrogant intellectualism. John H. Hick is demanding that a rigorously developed theological philosophical detail be dropped after 2,000 plus years of development!
Tuesday, April 17, 2007
Class notes on grace & redemption
(Originally written April 17, 2007 in Book 15)
Class Notes
The Grace & Redemption Debate
Is Christianity the only way?
Response - the only way to what?
Salvation means different things in different religions.
Salvation meaning:
Christianity -> Atonement
Islam -> Test of Obedience
Zoroastrianism -> Dualism
Hindu Vedanta -> Atman = Brahman
Hindu Bhakti -> Reliance on deity
Buddhism -> Nirvana
Jainism -> Floating to the top
Jodo Shin-Shu -> Escape to Pure Land
Yoga -> Divorce spirit from body
Yoga is an adaptation of the Hindu school Samkhya.
Samkhya is:
1) atheistic
2) Dualistic
- Purusha: Soul
- Prkriti: Matter
3) Pluralistic
The point of Samkhya is to remove your Purusha from the constraints of Prkriti.
Yoga took this general idea and added the god Ishvara.
Ishvara is immovable.
The breathing and postures of Yoga are attempting to imitate Ishvara's immovability.
To practice Yoga for the physical benefits is the same as taking communion for the nutritional value of the bread and wine.
Different religions have different ends and different means to attaining those ends.
Pluralism
Radical Pluralism: J.A. DiNoia & Stephen Heim
-Each religion has its own understanding of salvation and is self-contained without overlap
Heim: "Nirvana - communion with God are contradictory only if we assume that one or the other must be the sole fate for all human beings"
Problem: Heim is not true to the religions here
Problems with radical pluralism:
1) Exclusivity
2) There cannot be mutually exclusive true practices
3) We would have to make up concepts for this methodology because it is self-setting
John Hick's Forced Pluralism
1) All religions serve to bring people into contact with "The Real"
2) No religion has an edge on any others
3) All religions do an equal job of bringing their followers into relationship with the Real
4) The actual beliefs of religions differ from each other.
5) The Real is beyond all human words and concepts
6) All religions are legitimate ways to the Real
Hick on exclusive religions: Since salvation is not confined to Christianity we must reject all the old exclusivist dogma. This has in fact been done by most thinking Christians, though exceptions remain, mostly within the extreme Protestant fundamentalist constituencies.
Hick's Model
Buddhism: stripped of its Buddhist concepts
Hinduism: stripped of its Hindu concepts
Islam: stripped of its Islamic concepts
Christianity: stripped of its Christian concepts
All of these point man towards the real
Hick limits his model to Axial Age and Post-Axial Age religions (6th century B.C. on)
Heim's critique of Hick: The Real is like a cardboard cutout on the boardwalk. Put your head in the hole and you are in contact with the real.
Sumner Twiss' defense of Hick
Higher order theory with a Lower order description
Lower order descriptions that are in each religion may not fit the higher order theory. But that just means that lower order descriptions need to be changed to fit the scheme.
Iranaeus (2nd Century Apologist) vs. Gnostics
Gnosticism:
Monotes (awareness) -> Denotes (otherness) -> Monas (one-ness)-> Hen (other)
Iraneaus' satire of gnosticism
Gourd -> Utter-Emptiness -> Cucumber -> Melon -> The writings of Valentinus
Hick, like Valentinus is completely contrived. The description is totally arbitrary.
Class Notes
The Grace & Redemption Debate
Is Christianity the only way?
Response - the only way to what?
Salvation means different things in different religions.
Salvation meaning:
Christianity -> Atonement
Islam -> Test of Obedience
Zoroastrianism -> Dualism
Hindu Vedanta -> Atman = Brahman
Hindu Bhakti -> Reliance on deity
Buddhism -> Nirvana
Jainism -> Floating to the top
Jodo Shin-Shu -> Escape to Pure Land
Yoga -> Divorce spirit from body
Yoga is an adaptation of the Hindu school Samkhya.
Samkhya is:
1) atheistic
2) Dualistic
- Purusha: Soul
- Prkriti: Matter
3) Pluralistic
The point of Samkhya is to remove your Purusha from the constraints of Prkriti.
Yoga took this general idea and added the god Ishvara.
Ishvara is immovable.
The breathing and postures of Yoga are attempting to imitate Ishvara's immovability.
To practice Yoga for the physical benefits is the same as taking communion for the nutritional value of the bread and wine.
Different religions have different ends and different means to attaining those ends.
Pluralism
Radical Pluralism: J.A. DiNoia & Stephen Heim
-Each religion has its own understanding of salvation and is self-contained without overlap
Heim: "Nirvana - communion with God are contradictory only if we assume that one or the other must be the sole fate for all human beings"
Problem: Heim is not true to the religions here
Problems with radical pluralism:
1) Exclusivity
2) There cannot be mutually exclusive true practices
3) We would have to make up concepts for this methodology because it is self-setting
John Hick's Forced Pluralism
1) All religions serve to bring people into contact with "The Real"
2) No religion has an edge on any others
3) All religions do an equal job of bringing their followers into relationship with the Real
4) The actual beliefs of religions differ from each other.
5) The Real is beyond all human words and concepts
6) All religions are legitimate ways to the Real
Hick on exclusive religions: Since salvation is not confined to Christianity we must reject all the old exclusivist dogma. This has in fact been done by most thinking Christians, though exceptions remain, mostly within the extreme Protestant fundamentalist constituencies.
Hick's Model
Buddhism: stripped of its Buddhist concepts
Hinduism: stripped of its Hindu concepts
Islam: stripped of its Islamic concepts
Christianity: stripped of its Christian concepts
All of these point man towards the real
Hick limits his model to Axial Age and Post-Axial Age religions (6th century B.C. on)
Heim's critique of Hick: The Real is like a cardboard cutout on the boardwalk. Put your head in the hole and you are in contact with the real.
Sumner Twiss' defense of Hick
Higher order theory with a Lower order description
Lower order descriptions that are in each religion may not fit the higher order theory. But that just means that lower order descriptions need to be changed to fit the scheme.
Iranaeus (2nd Century Apologist) vs. Gnostics
Gnosticism:
Monotes (awareness) -> Denotes (otherness) -> Monas (one-ness)-> Hen (other)
Iraneaus' satire of gnosticism
Gourd -> Utter-Emptiness -> Cucumber -> Melon -> The writings of Valentinus
Hick, like Valentinus is completely contrived. The description is totally arbitrary.
Monday, April 16, 2007
Creation & Redemption in Eastern Traditions, Mysticism
(Originally written April 16, 2007 in Book 15)
In Eastern Religions one needs to be redeemed from phenomenal existence.
In Vedantic monistic Hinduism the philosophy begins with the continual existence of a soul (jiva) in this present world. Maya (this world) is full of suffering. So as long as jiva exists in the Maya the jiva will suffer. As the jiva exists in the Maya it is operated from its true state of existence as oneness with the Bhraman.
Samsara, the cycle of reincarnation that keeps the soul anchored in Maya, keeping people trapped in a life of suffering.
Whether one comes back as an animal, human, demon or whatever depends on the amount of Karma one accumulates by committing disruptive actions (Klesha).
The view of Samsara is a hopeless one because they do not see it as very easy to get out of the cycle.
Another major problem in this view is that of ignorance. One may not know his true identity of atman-Brahma. Salvation must come through knowledge (advaita).
Salvation is achieved through knowledge in Vedantic Hinduism.
Moksha is the "release" from Samsara.
Moksha is salvation in the sense that it saves one from phenomenal existence.
Buddhism, Jainism and other forms of Hinduism follow similar lines of salvation, but in there own way.
In Buddhism, it is not the identity of atman (the true self) one hopes to achieve, but anatman (non-self) [This is Theravada Buddhism].
In Theravada Buddhism salvation occurs when one recognizes that one does not exist and stop clinging to this realm of existence.
In Jainism we exist in the realm because of the accumulated karma (which in Jainism is actually physical matter clinging to our souls).
Karma is accumulated by our actions that harm other creatures.
To achieve salvation in Jainism one must cease doing things that accumulates dust on one's soul.
Jainism salvation also starts with knowledge. The soul that knows the truth and then acts on it is the soul that gains release from the cycle of reincarnation.
Chinese and Japanese traditions have no notion of salvation within themselves. Buddhism in these cultures has grafted the notion of salvation into them.
Christianity
Christianity is differentiated from all other religions by its notion of original sin.
Original sin rules out any neutral status of humanity. But, it is not Eastern in that original sin results from phenomenal existence, but fallen phenomenal existence.
The Fall of man resulted in a disruption of the God-man relationship. Salvation in Christianity is the restoration of this all important relationship.
Man is helpless and unable to restore this relationship through his own power.
Christianity holds that all human beings are fallen as a result of Adam's original sin.
Christianity emphasizes the fallenness of all human beings.
In Indic religions the cosmos and physical existence is corrupt; in Christianity the human soul is what is corrupt and if the cosmos and physical existence is corrupt it is because of the result of human fallenness.
The way to salvation in Christianity is through mediation via the atoning death of Christ.
Salvation entails a number of facets:
1) Justification - declaration of the sinner as righteous by God on the basis of Christ's work.
2) Regeneration - God implants a new nature in the person enabling him to live a righteous life.
3) Conversion - sinner turns from sin and trusts in God
4) Adoption - new believer is made a member of God's family
5) Indwelling - The Holy Spirit dwells within the believer
6) Glorification - Elevating the relationship between God and man to a higher status then Adam and God initially enjoyed.
In Christianity faith cannot be supplemented by works, but faith results in good works.
Grace in other religions
Christianity is not the only religion in where one is saved by faith alone.
There is a difference between grace and mercy.
Most religions have a concept of mercy which is usually a central concept.
Grace is entirely the result of the divine person's actions and is unaided by human efforts whatsoever.
Along with Christianity there are two classic examples of grace in world religions:
1) The cat school of Bhakti Hinduism
- Southern school of devotion to Rama
- Rama saves us the way a cat carries her young (in her mouth)
2) The Jodo-Shin-Shu school of Buddhism
- most popular school in Japan
- salvation comes from the buddha Amida
- The legend goes that Amido was a ruler under the influence of the Buddha Lokesvararaja and took up a monkshood. As a monk he went by the name Dharmakara and vowed not to achieve enlightenment until he made it possible for all creatures to achieve it. Thus, he created the pure land in which all would be reborn into and achieve nirvana in the next life.
- The monk Honen in the 12th century A.D. made this legend the core of his buddhism.
- One can enter the pure land in one's next life by stating "Namu Amida Butsu" (I worship the Buddha Amida (or "nembutsu" for short).
- Honen taught to recite nembutsu frequently to achieve rebirth as a male in the pure land.
- The Buddhist monk Shinran actually built on Honen's ideas and formed the Jodo-Shin-Shu school.
- Shinran taught that there is nothing a person can do to enter the Pure Land other than completely trusting in Amida.
Christian Response
In Christianity salvation comes via faith in Jesus Christ. In the cat school of Bhakti Hinduism comes through faith in Rama/Ishvana and in Jodo-Shin-Shu Buddhism grace comes through faith in Amida Butsu.
Christianity's concept of grace is tied to its concept of redemptive salvation which makes it drastically different than Eastern concepts of grace.
Christianity differentiates itself from all other religions in the role that its founder plays as a historical figure.
Islam could exist without Muhammad. Muhammad taught that Islam was practiced long before him, but it had been corrupted.
Muhammad plays an important role in Islam, but not an essential one.
The Buddha is neither unique nor essential to Buddhism. There were many Buddhas.
Jainism can exist without its founder Mahavira because he is non-essential.
Without the historicity of Christianity is a religion of impossible moral exhortations.
Without Jesus and his death on the cross and his resurrection there can be no Christian atonement.
Christianity is a wholly unique religion because it is falsifiable (Jesus' body could be found and falsify the resurrection) and because it can be shown as plausible because of historical evidence.
Cosmos & Mysticism
Mysticism exists in Eastern & Western Religions.
The essence of a mystical experience is that one participates in an unmediated link with something absolute.
Examples of Mysticism
1) A Sufi (Islam) experiences the closeness of Allah
2) A Kabbalist (Judaism) sees God on his throne (the devekuth)
3) The Vedantic Hindu who realizes the absorption of his atman in Brahman
4) The Bhakti Hindu who has a direct vision (darshan) of his deity
5) The Buddhist who comes to awareness in nirvana
6) The Daoist who yields all to the Dao
Eastern mystical experiences deal with paths of redemption whereas Western mystical experiences merely enhance the total spiritual picture.
There is no good reason to infer that Christian mystics encounter the same reality as non-Christian ones (contra the "Perennial Philosophy")
Mystics do not encounter "Reality" they encounter a deity.
There should not be too much significance placed on mystical experiences within Christianity.
Mystical experiences are not a part of Christianity's theological concept of redemption.
Cosmic Redemption
While there is no notion of Original Sin in Judaism, it stresses the fallen nature of the present world order.
In addition to human beings each needing individual redemption, the cosmos as a whole needs redemption.
In Western Traditions the cosmos will eventually be redeemed: Islam- Heaven & Hell; Judaism - kingdom of God; Christianity - New Heaven & Earth; Zoroastrianism - reclaiming of the universe. But, in Eastern traditions the cosmos are continually renewed, but never redeemed.
In Eastern Religions one needs to be redeemed from phenomenal existence.
In Vedantic monistic Hinduism the philosophy begins with the continual existence of a soul (jiva) in this present world. Maya (this world) is full of suffering. So as long as jiva exists in the Maya the jiva will suffer. As the jiva exists in the Maya it is operated from its true state of existence as oneness with the Bhraman.
Samsara, the cycle of reincarnation that keeps the soul anchored in Maya, keeping people trapped in a life of suffering.
Whether one comes back as an animal, human, demon or whatever depends on the amount of Karma one accumulates by committing disruptive actions (Klesha).
The view of Samsara is a hopeless one because they do not see it as very easy to get out of the cycle.
Another major problem in this view is that of ignorance. One may not know his true identity of atman-Brahma. Salvation must come through knowledge (advaita).
Salvation is achieved through knowledge in Vedantic Hinduism.
Moksha is the "release" from Samsara.
Moksha is salvation in the sense that it saves one from phenomenal existence.
Buddhism, Jainism and other forms of Hinduism follow similar lines of salvation, but in there own way.
In Buddhism, it is not the identity of atman (the true self) one hopes to achieve, but anatman (non-self) [This is Theravada Buddhism].
In Theravada Buddhism salvation occurs when one recognizes that one does not exist and stop clinging to this realm of existence.
In Jainism we exist in the realm because of the accumulated karma (which in Jainism is actually physical matter clinging to our souls).
Karma is accumulated by our actions that harm other creatures.
To achieve salvation in Jainism one must cease doing things that accumulates dust on one's soul.
Jainism salvation also starts with knowledge. The soul that knows the truth and then acts on it is the soul that gains release from the cycle of reincarnation.
Chinese and Japanese traditions have no notion of salvation within themselves. Buddhism in these cultures has grafted the notion of salvation into them.
Christianity
Christianity is differentiated from all other religions by its notion of original sin.
Original sin rules out any neutral status of humanity. But, it is not Eastern in that original sin results from phenomenal existence, but fallen phenomenal existence.
The Fall of man resulted in a disruption of the God-man relationship. Salvation in Christianity is the restoration of this all important relationship.
Man is helpless and unable to restore this relationship through his own power.
Christianity holds that all human beings are fallen as a result of Adam's original sin.
Christianity emphasizes the fallenness of all human beings.
In Indic religions the cosmos and physical existence is corrupt; in Christianity the human soul is what is corrupt and if the cosmos and physical existence is corrupt it is because of the result of human fallenness.
The way to salvation in Christianity is through mediation via the atoning death of Christ.
Salvation entails a number of facets:
1) Justification - declaration of the sinner as righteous by God on the basis of Christ's work.
2) Regeneration - God implants a new nature in the person enabling him to live a righteous life.
3) Conversion - sinner turns from sin and trusts in God
4) Adoption - new believer is made a member of God's family
5) Indwelling - The Holy Spirit dwells within the believer
6) Glorification - Elevating the relationship between God and man to a higher status then Adam and God initially enjoyed.
In Christianity faith cannot be supplemented by works, but faith results in good works.
Grace in other religions
Christianity is not the only religion in where one is saved by faith alone.
There is a difference between grace and mercy.
Most religions have a concept of mercy which is usually a central concept.
Grace is entirely the result of the divine person's actions and is unaided by human efforts whatsoever.
Along with Christianity there are two classic examples of grace in world religions:
1) The cat school of Bhakti Hinduism
- Southern school of devotion to Rama
- Rama saves us the way a cat carries her young (in her mouth)
2) The Jodo-Shin-Shu school of Buddhism
- most popular school in Japan
- salvation comes from the buddha Amida
- The legend goes that Amido was a ruler under the influence of the Buddha Lokesvararaja and took up a monkshood. As a monk he went by the name Dharmakara and vowed not to achieve enlightenment until he made it possible for all creatures to achieve it. Thus, he created the pure land in which all would be reborn into and achieve nirvana in the next life.
- The monk Honen in the 12th century A.D. made this legend the core of his buddhism.
- One can enter the pure land in one's next life by stating "Namu Amida Butsu" (I worship the Buddha Amida (or "nembutsu" for short).
- Honen taught to recite nembutsu frequently to achieve rebirth as a male in the pure land.
- The Buddhist monk Shinran actually built on Honen's ideas and formed the Jodo-Shin-Shu school.
- Shinran taught that there is nothing a person can do to enter the Pure Land other than completely trusting in Amida.
Christian Response
In Christianity salvation comes via faith in Jesus Christ. In the cat school of Bhakti Hinduism comes through faith in Rama/Ishvana and in Jodo-Shin-Shu Buddhism grace comes through faith in Amida Butsu.
Christianity's concept of grace is tied to its concept of redemptive salvation which makes it drastically different than Eastern concepts of grace.
Christianity differentiates itself from all other religions in the role that its founder plays as a historical figure.
Islam could exist without Muhammad. Muhammad taught that Islam was practiced long before him, but it had been corrupted.
Muhammad plays an important role in Islam, but not an essential one.
The Buddha is neither unique nor essential to Buddhism. There were many Buddhas.
Jainism can exist without its founder Mahavira because he is non-essential.
Without the historicity of Christianity is a religion of impossible moral exhortations.
Without Jesus and his death on the cross and his resurrection there can be no Christian atonement.
Christianity is a wholly unique religion because it is falsifiable (Jesus' body could be found and falsify the resurrection) and because it can be shown as plausible because of historical evidence.
Cosmos & Mysticism
Mysticism exists in Eastern & Western Religions.
The essence of a mystical experience is that one participates in an unmediated link with something absolute.
Examples of Mysticism
1) A Sufi (Islam) experiences the closeness of Allah
2) A Kabbalist (Judaism) sees God on his throne (the devekuth)
3) The Vedantic Hindu who realizes the absorption of his atman in Brahman
4) The Bhakti Hindu who has a direct vision (darshan) of his deity
5) The Buddhist who comes to awareness in nirvana
6) The Daoist who yields all to the Dao
Eastern mystical experiences deal with paths of redemption whereas Western mystical experiences merely enhance the total spiritual picture.
There is no good reason to infer that Christian mystics encounter the same reality as non-Christian ones (contra the "Perennial Philosophy")
Mystics do not encounter "Reality" they encounter a deity.
There should not be too much significance placed on mystical experiences within Christianity.
Mystical experiences are not a part of Christianity's theological concept of redemption.
Cosmic Redemption
While there is no notion of Original Sin in Judaism, it stresses the fallen nature of the present world order.
In addition to human beings each needing individual redemption, the cosmos as a whole needs redemption.
In Western Traditions the cosmos will eventually be redeemed: Islam- Heaven & Hell; Judaism - kingdom of God; Christianity - New Heaven & Earth; Zoroastrianism - reclaiming of the universe. But, in Eastern traditions the cosmos are continually renewed, but never redeemed.
Wednesday, April 11, 2007
Morality & Guilt in various religions
(Originally written April 11, 2007 in book 15)
Chapter 4 - Morality & Guilt
Some fundamental distinctions
There are many moral concepts that are universal to all religions.
Duties in Religion
1. Moral Norms
2. Religious Norms
A. Obligatory Actions
B. Ritual avoidances
i. Defilement of self
ii. Defilement of the Holy
The Common Core
There are similarities in moral codes from religion to religion, but upon closer examination they can be seriously different.
Some principles may seem similar like Thou Shall Not Kill of Judaism & Christianity and the principle of ahimsa - the 10 precepts of Buddhism. But, "Thou shall not kill" means do not murder, while ahimsa is no harming of life whatsoever.
Other principles are completely contrary from religion to religion. The second commandment, "Thou shall not bow down before any graven images" is contrary to the statues of Buddhas, an integral part of Buddhism. Ahimsa is contrary to the animal sacrifice of the Old Testament.
Religious and ethical considerations go hand in hand. An ethical concept of a religion cannot be isolated from the overall context of that religion.
The Ceremonial Dimension
Sin and defilement are very different. Sin (a breaking of a moral rule) involves intent, whereas defilement (a breaking of a ceremonial rule) completely disregards intent.
Moral, religious, and ceremonial concepts can be isolated only in theory. In practice they work hand in hand and no such distinction is found among practitioners.
Case in point: Christianity
Christianity is not an ethical religion like Judaism or Islam. It is a redemptive religion The heart of Christianity is not its moral code (it does have one) but a historical event leading to the salvation of men.
The Law within Christianity operates in a few ways:
1) It governs life so that life is actually livable.
2) It functions as a "schoolmaster" (Galatians 3:24). It prepares us for adoption into God's family. It shows us that we are incapable of earning admittance into God's family and that we can enter only by Grace.
3) The keeping of the law is only possible via the regenerative work of the Holy Spirit.
"Christian ethics apart from a Christian supernatural setting is pointless" (Corduan, 88).
Christian religion and Christian ethics are utterly and wholly intertwined. Without the theological underpinnings of Christianity all that is left is an impossible moral code.
From its inception Christianity ahas been against many of the ritual prohibitions that were integral parts of Jewish and Gentile societies.
The only occurrence of ceremonial purity in the New Testament is Paul's admonishment of the Corinthians' treatment of the Lord's supper (1 Corinthians 11:17-34).
Corduan believes that this admonition is not so much a command for personal holiness prior to partaking of Communion, but a mandate to understand communion correctly and to treat it with proper respect. Linehan feels that this is a ceremonial purity issue right now (subject to change of course).
Side not: It may not be a call to become personally holy before partaking communion because that would in fact deny the nature of communion, but a more inner ceremonial purity in being ready to partake of communion. As for what communion is I am not ready to give it the Catholic transubstantiation status, but neither do I want to reduce it to a mere remembrance of the event. I think it is a true partaking of something holy and not merely a remembrance of something holy.
In various aspects of Christendom throughout history some ceremonial purity has emerged, but is not a part of the New Testament.
Ethics in the religious universe
Judaism & Islam have similar ethical codes.
Judaism has a longer history and a much more detailed set of codes.
The moral codes function differently in Islam and Judaism. Adherence to the moral code in Judaism is an expression of the relationship between the Jew and YHWH whereas adherence to the moral code in Islam is the way to enter Heaven for the Muslim.
The standards of Judaism also apply solely to the Jews whereas the moral codes of Islam we taken as universally binding.
Zoroastrianism's moral code is similar to Islamic & Jewish codes. All three were revealed by God to a prophet (Zoroastrianism - Zoroaster, Islam - Muhammad, Judaism - Moses).
Zoroastrianism however is preoccupied with ceremonial purity more than ethical obligations.
In Indic religions (Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism) there is a two-tiered arrangement. Monks have stricter codes than the laity.
The Hindu code is hinged on the caste system. All ethical and moral obligations are tied to one's caste.
Hinduism also has duties associated with stages of life.
A man must become a sannyasin and renounce everything, his name, his family, his caste, etc. in order to achieve moksha (release, liberation).
The monks in Buddhism and Jainism are the only ones capable of release from the cycle of reincarnation. The laity can work to have a better rebirth, but cannot achieve nirvana.
Jainism is harshly ascetic. Eventually a monk will starve himself to achieve his goal.
Buddhism considers itself the "middle way" and is not as ascetic as Jainism.
Buddhism teaches that harsh asceticism can be a hinderance to spiritual enlightenment.
Confucianism is above all else a code of behavior.
Confucianism came to exist within other religions (Daoism/Buddhism in China, Shinto in Japan), not along side it.
Confucianism focuses on human behavior and teaches that proper individual behavior will alleviate societal problems.
Confucianism does not possess within itself any religious doctrine.
Violations and their Consequences
There are two major trajectories in the world's religions:
1) Western/Abrahamic Traditions
- Judaism
- Zoroastrianism
- Islam
- Baha'i
- Christianity
2) Eastern/Indic Traditions
- Hinduism
- Buddhism
- Jainism
- Sikhism
- Daoism
These two groups differ radically on the conception of sin.
In Abrahamic religions sin is an offending of God and breaking the human-God relationship.
In Indic religion sin is a negative Karmic effect.
God is the source of moral rules in monotheistic traditions.
The character of moral law is prescriptive and proscriptive, not descriptive in Abrahamic traditions.
Punishment occurs after sin in the West. It could be a warning, salutary, or be a making of an example out of the person.
Punitive action results out of a decree of a personal God. A personal God can also provide mercy or grace to the sinner.
Sin in the Indic traditions is similar to breaking a natural law.
Indic religions have the concept of Karma, which is not tied to a personal God.
In Hinduism, Karma is tied to Samsara, the cycle of rebirths. One's present life is the result of one's previous life.
Karma is not deterministic or fatalistic in Hinduism. One controls one's karma.
Karma is automated in Hinduism. It is not (usually) a judgment passed by a deity.
Karma is negative and pessimistic. It is viewed as perpetual suffering.
The goal of Hinduism is not to accumulate good karma, but to escape the samsara cycle.
There can be a divine intervention in samsara and karma. This is what the Bhagavad Gita tells Hindus.
The negative aspect of karma is even more noticeable in Buddhism and Jainism.
Buddha taught that there is no individual soul and that each person's an aggregate of effects.
Good karma in Buddhism is karma nonetheless and must be balanced out in another life. The goal is to have no karma at all.
In Jainism, Karma is a dust that accumulates on one's soul.
Only a complet abnégation of life leads to release from samsara.
The goal of a Jain monk is to do nothing and to starve himself to death.
Sin belongs within the framework of a system with a personal God. Karma fits into a framework without a personal deity much better.
Christianity alone possesses the notion of "original sin". At first blush this can appear similar to karma in that everyone is born into a state of condemnation through no fault of our own.
The major misunderstanding with original sin is to tie it to finitude. Our finitude makes it impossible not to sin is a common erroneous belief.
Christ proved that human being can live a sinless life.
Original Sin describes the broken relationship between man and God, not the introduction of finitude.
Healing the Breach
Ronal M. Green distinguishes between four senses of reason
1) Theoretical reason - our conceptualization of the world around us
2) Prudential reason - our capacity for living successfully in the world as we understand it
3) Moral reason - places our priorities in order
4) Religious reason - attempts to reconcile the conflict between prudential and moral reason
Response to the World Parliament Statement
Only the most minimal code seems to be fairly universal (truth-property-life-sex) and even these must not be abstracted from their religious context lest they become equivocations and meaningless.
The statement, originally by Hans Küng calls for an end to prejudice and hate. This is all well and good unless it denies objective truth on matters like abortion and homosexuality. Many Christians are labeled as bigots for their stances on these issues.
Likewise, Küng demands that religions denounce their fundamentalists because they deny peace among religions and without religious peace there can be no world peace. But this world be a denouncement of objective truth on many vital issues.
The 1997 Declaration of a Global Ethic affirms an universal moral code and locates it where it ought to be, within a religious context. But, it does not give any implementation strategy and leave evangelical Christians in a place where they cannot agree with it without giving away too much.
Chapter 4 - Morality & Guilt
Some fundamental distinctions
There are many moral concepts that are universal to all religions.
Duties in Religion
1. Moral Norms
2. Religious Norms
A. Obligatory Actions
B. Ritual avoidances
i. Defilement of self
ii. Defilement of the Holy
The Common Core
There are similarities in moral codes from religion to religion, but upon closer examination they can be seriously different.
Some principles may seem similar like Thou Shall Not Kill of Judaism & Christianity and the principle of ahimsa - the 10 precepts of Buddhism. But, "Thou shall not kill" means do not murder, while ahimsa is no harming of life whatsoever.
Other principles are completely contrary from religion to religion. The second commandment, "Thou shall not bow down before any graven images" is contrary to the statues of Buddhas, an integral part of Buddhism. Ahimsa is contrary to the animal sacrifice of the Old Testament.
Religious and ethical considerations go hand in hand. An ethical concept of a religion cannot be isolated from the overall context of that religion.
The Ceremonial Dimension
Sin and defilement are very different. Sin (a breaking of a moral rule) involves intent, whereas defilement (a breaking of a ceremonial rule) completely disregards intent.
Moral, religious, and ceremonial concepts can be isolated only in theory. In practice they work hand in hand and no such distinction is found among practitioners.
Case in point: Christianity
Christianity is not an ethical religion like Judaism or Islam. It is a redemptive religion The heart of Christianity is not its moral code (it does have one) but a historical event leading to the salvation of men.
The Law within Christianity operates in a few ways:
1) It governs life so that life is actually livable.
2) It functions as a "schoolmaster" (Galatians 3:24). It prepares us for adoption into God's family. It shows us that we are incapable of earning admittance into God's family and that we can enter only by Grace.
3) The keeping of the law is only possible via the regenerative work of the Holy Spirit.
"Christian ethics apart from a Christian supernatural setting is pointless" (Corduan, 88).
Christian religion and Christian ethics are utterly and wholly intertwined. Without the theological underpinnings of Christianity all that is left is an impossible moral code.
From its inception Christianity ahas been against many of the ritual prohibitions that were integral parts of Jewish and Gentile societies.
The only occurrence of ceremonial purity in the New Testament is Paul's admonishment of the Corinthians' treatment of the Lord's supper (1 Corinthians 11:17-34).
Corduan believes that this admonition is not so much a command for personal holiness prior to partaking of Communion, but a mandate to understand communion correctly and to treat it with proper respect. Linehan feels that this is a ceremonial purity issue right now (subject to change of course).
Side not: It may not be a call to become personally holy before partaking communion because that would in fact deny the nature of communion, but a more inner ceremonial purity in being ready to partake of communion. As for what communion is I am not ready to give it the Catholic transubstantiation status, but neither do I want to reduce it to a mere remembrance of the event. I think it is a true partaking of something holy and not merely a remembrance of something holy.
In various aspects of Christendom throughout history some ceremonial purity has emerged, but is not a part of the New Testament.
Ethics in the religious universe
Judaism & Islam have similar ethical codes.
Judaism has a longer history and a much more detailed set of codes.
The moral codes function differently in Islam and Judaism. Adherence to the moral code in Judaism is an expression of the relationship between the Jew and YHWH whereas adherence to the moral code in Islam is the way to enter Heaven for the Muslim.
The standards of Judaism also apply solely to the Jews whereas the moral codes of Islam we taken as universally binding.
Zoroastrianism's moral code is similar to Islamic & Jewish codes. All three were revealed by God to a prophet (Zoroastrianism - Zoroaster, Islam - Muhammad, Judaism - Moses).
Zoroastrianism however is preoccupied with ceremonial purity more than ethical obligations.
In Indic religions (Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism) there is a two-tiered arrangement. Monks have stricter codes than the laity.
The Hindu code is hinged on the caste system. All ethical and moral obligations are tied to one's caste.
Hinduism also has duties associated with stages of life.
A man must become a sannyasin and renounce everything, his name, his family, his caste, etc. in order to achieve moksha (release, liberation).
The monks in Buddhism and Jainism are the only ones capable of release from the cycle of reincarnation. The laity can work to have a better rebirth, but cannot achieve nirvana.
Jainism is harshly ascetic. Eventually a monk will starve himself to achieve his goal.
Buddhism considers itself the "middle way" and is not as ascetic as Jainism.
Buddhism teaches that harsh asceticism can be a hinderance to spiritual enlightenment.
Confucianism is above all else a code of behavior.
Confucianism came to exist within other religions (Daoism/Buddhism in China, Shinto in Japan), not along side it.
Confucianism focuses on human behavior and teaches that proper individual behavior will alleviate societal problems.
Confucianism does not possess within itself any religious doctrine.
Violations and their Consequences
There are two major trajectories in the world's religions:
1) Western/Abrahamic Traditions
- Judaism
- Zoroastrianism
- Islam
- Baha'i
- Christianity
2) Eastern/Indic Traditions
- Hinduism
- Buddhism
- Jainism
- Sikhism
- Daoism
These two groups differ radically on the conception of sin.
In Abrahamic religions sin is an offending of God and breaking the human-God relationship.
In Indic religion sin is a negative Karmic effect.
God is the source of moral rules in monotheistic traditions.
The character of moral law is prescriptive and proscriptive, not descriptive in Abrahamic traditions.
Punishment occurs after sin in the West. It could be a warning, salutary, or be a making of an example out of the person.
Punitive action results out of a decree of a personal God. A personal God can also provide mercy or grace to the sinner.
Sin in the Indic traditions is similar to breaking a natural law.
Indic religions have the concept of Karma, which is not tied to a personal God.
In Hinduism, Karma is tied to Samsara, the cycle of rebirths. One's present life is the result of one's previous life.
Karma is not deterministic or fatalistic in Hinduism. One controls one's karma.
Karma is automated in Hinduism. It is not (usually) a judgment passed by a deity.
Karma is negative and pessimistic. It is viewed as perpetual suffering.
The goal of Hinduism is not to accumulate good karma, but to escape the samsara cycle.
There can be a divine intervention in samsara and karma. This is what the Bhagavad Gita tells Hindus.
The negative aspect of karma is even more noticeable in Buddhism and Jainism.
Buddha taught that there is no individual soul and that each person's an aggregate of effects.
Good karma in Buddhism is karma nonetheless and must be balanced out in another life. The goal is to have no karma at all.
In Jainism, Karma is a dust that accumulates on one's soul.
Only a complet abnégation of life leads to release from samsara.
The goal of a Jain monk is to do nothing and to starve himself to death.
Sin belongs within the framework of a system with a personal God. Karma fits into a framework without a personal deity much better.
Christianity alone possesses the notion of "original sin". At first blush this can appear similar to karma in that everyone is born into a state of condemnation through no fault of our own.
The major misunderstanding with original sin is to tie it to finitude. Our finitude makes it impossible not to sin is a common erroneous belief.
Christ proved that human being can live a sinless life.
Original Sin describes the broken relationship between man and God, not the introduction of finitude.
Healing the Breach
Ronal M. Green distinguishes between four senses of reason
1) Theoretical reason - our conceptualization of the world around us
2) Prudential reason - our capacity for living successfully in the world as we understand it
3) Moral reason - places our priorities in order
4) Religious reason - attempts to reconcile the conflict between prudential and moral reason
Response to the World Parliament Statement
Only the most minimal code seems to be fairly universal (truth-property-life-sex) and even these must not be abstracted from their religious context lest they become equivocations and meaningless.
The statement, originally by Hans Küng calls for an end to prejudice and hate. This is all well and good unless it denies objective truth on matters like abortion and homosexuality. Many Christians are labeled as bigots for their stances on these issues.
Likewise, Küng demands that religions denounce their fundamentalists because they deny peace among religions and without religious peace there can be no world peace. But this world be a denouncement of objective truth on many vital issues.
The 1997 Declaration of a Global Ethic affirms an universal moral code and locates it where it ought to be, within a religious context. But, it does not give any implementation strategy and leave evangelical Christians in a place where they cannot agree with it without giving away too much.
Original Monotheism, Special Revelation and other Scriptures
(Originally written April 11, 2007 in Book 15)
Subsequent Reaction to Schmidt & Original Monotheism
Whether or not one accepts Schmidt's theory it is no longer possible to strictly adhere to an evolutionary theory of religion in light of Schmidt's anthropological evidence.
The most common reaction to Schmidt is to reject his conclusions on an idealogical basis.
Joseph M. Kitasawa claims that while historical evidence is good in the origin theory, any religion's origin is ultimately answerable with metaphysical answers.
Others, like many post-modernists, including David Adams Leeming, claim that religion arises out of a specific social context. Historical investigation is wholly absent from this type of analysis.
Raffaele Pettazzoni attempts to bridge the gap of extreme historistic theories and purely a historical phenomenology. He gave history its due place, but did not draw such strong conclusions as Schmidt.
Pettazzoni maintained that the Supreme god of primitive cultures did not constitute monotheistic religion because that god was a creator and sustainer god, but a remote god nonetheless. He argued that only reform from polytheism could lead to true monotheism.
Summary
There is good reason to believe that religion began with the awareness of a single, creator God.
The God of original monotheism is identical to the God of Scripture in his basic attributes.
The persistence of monotheism can be attributed to the historical continuity with the awareness of God by the first human beings and its reinforcement in general revelation.
General revelation has two dimensions:
1) An intuitive one
2) A rational one
Both yield:
1) Knowledge of the existence of God
2) Knowledge of God's attributes
3) Knowledge of a fundamental moral sense
Chapter 3 - Special Revelation and Non-Christian Scriptures
Christianity maintains that special revelation is located in the Old Testament and New Testament, as well as in Jesus Christ himself.
There are many non-Christian scriptures, but the nature of Scripture is radically different in each religion.
Corduan's "The Protestant Fallacy" is reading other religions' scriptures as one would read the Christian Scriptures. Since scriptural nature varies from religion to religion there can be no single way of reading or regarding Scriptures. One cannot assume the role of Scripture in any religion is identical to the role of Scripture in Christianity.
The Protestant Fallacy
Classical Protestantism holds that the Bible is the literal Word of God and thus, the text is inspired by God.
Protestantism asserts "sola scriptura". That is, there is no other source for propositional revelation other than the Bible.
Protestant Christianity is an "extremely book-bound form of religion" (Corduan, 57-58).
Protestant Christianity stands or falls by Scriptural assertions.
The Protestant fallacy is applying this "sola scriptura" mentality (which is appropriate for the Bible) to other religion's scriptures.
Judaism: The Deuterocanon as key to the Canon
The Protestant fallacy manifests itself when one assumes that to understand Judaism one must simply study the Old Testament.
This can lead to assertions like, "since the Jews no longer perform the ritual sacrifices they are required by their own scriptures, Judaism is internally incoherent".
The Scriptures of Judaism are identical with the Old Testament Canon of Christianity. These books are known in Judaism as the Tanak (TNK).
The Tanak is an acronym based on the Hebrew names of the three divisions of writings:
1) the Law - Torah
2) the Prophets - Nebiim
3) the Writings - Ketubim
When Jerusalem fell in A.D. 70 the Jews began writing down the interpretations of the Tanak which had been entirely oral before.
The Mishnah was produced around A.D. 500. Later, the Talmud was produced.
Since the production of the Talmud, all Judaism is Talmudic Judaism.
Orthodox Judaism holds that the Talmud, though not inspired, is expendable, but not revisable.
Other sects of Judaism, like Cabalistic movements accepted the Zohar as a supplement, but not a replacement, to the Talmud.
While the Tanak is the only Scripture in Judaism, all governance of life is done via the Talmud.
The Jewish Scriptures (for better or worse) must be interpreted through the lens of the Talmud.
Islam: The Qur'an as Event
The Qur'an is the compilation of what was revealed to Muhammad.
The Qur'an is merely excerpts from God's full book in heaven, the umm-al-kitub.
Muslims believe the Qur'an is as it is exactly as it was when it was revealed to Muhammad.
Despite its lofty place in Islam, the Qur'an was supplemented easy on by another book. The Hadith is a collection of the acts and sayings of Muhammad.
While the Hadith is not considered to be revealed like the Qur'an, it is nonetheless as binding as the Qur'an.
The value of the Qur'an within Islam has little to do with its content. The value lies in its very occurrence.
The Qur'an is utterly pristine, whereas other men's revelatory books like Moses' Law, David's Psalms and Jesus' Gospels while being products of revelation were distorted by their followers.
TO recognize the Qur'an is more important than to read it.
The Qur'an is not a human book at all; whereas, the Bible is wholly human and wholly divine.
Muslims believe that the Qur'an mediates God's presence into their lives.
Even in non-Arabic speaking countries the Qur'an is devoutly recited in Arabic. Recitation of the Qur'an is the most important function of the Qur'an in the Muslim community.
Zoroastrianism: A Ritual Accumulation
Similar to the Bible, the canon of Zoroastrianism is a collection of works spanning many centuries.
The Zoroastrianism Scripture is called the Avesta.
The oldest part of the Avesta is the Yasna, which contains hymns called the Gathas, some of which date back to Zoroaster (6th century B.C.).
The Videvdat is the newest part of the Avesta and dates from when Zoroastrianism was the State religion of Iran (A.D. 226 - 637).
The Avesta is not a great source for authoritative information about Zoroastrianism because the language is so impenetrable.
The language of the Gathas is called Avesta because it is simply so different from any other languages.
"One scholar of Iranian religion [H.S. Nybers] has maintained that the Gathas are so difficult to understand because they are intentional gibberish" (Corduan, 62).
Even in the Zoroastrian community, the Avesta is not supposed to be a source of information.
The Avesta is a ritual text used to recite as worship and purification.
Sikhism: A day in the Life of the Book
The Adi Granth is the Scripture of Sikhism.
Nanak (1469-1539) founded Sikhism as a way to bridge Hinduism and Islam. He taught that there is only one God whose nature lies beyond human reason and religious imagery.
Nanak was considered a holy guru by his followers. He was then followed by 9 other holy gurus, each seen as the embodiment of divine light.
Arjan Dev, the 5th Guru compiled all his and the previous gurus' chants and hymns into the Adi Granth.
Gobind Singh (1666-1708) the 10th and final guru, declared that there would be no more gurus and the Adi Granth would be the guru forever more.
From then on the book itself, which is displayed in the Golden Shrine of Amritsa has been recognized as true and binding by all Sikhs.
The Adi Granth is the very embodiment of God.
The Adi Granth functions in two ways:
1) It is the hymn book of the congregation
2) It is venerated as the holy guru.
The actual book is put to sleep in a bed at night and woken up and placed on an altar each morning.
"The basic function of the Adi Granth is an object of veneration, not as a record of revelation" (Corduan, 65).
Baha'i : A Canon Plus a Canon
Baha'i is a young religion founded by Baha'ullah.
Baha'ullah is considered to be a manifestation of God. He was the 9th manifestation after Abraham, Krishna, Moses, Zoroaster, Buddha, Jesus, Muhammad, the Bab and Baha'ullah.
Baha'ullah taught that all these other prophets had inspired writings and that his own writings complete the canon of world Scriptures for the time being.
The Baha'i Scriptures should be read in a similar fashion as the Protestant Christian Bible is, but the Baha'i Scriptures are paralleled by all the other 8 world Scriptures, whereas the Bible stands alone.
Hinduism: A Protean Canon
Eastern religions have sacred texts in a very different way then to Western religions, especially Christianity.
Hindu sacred texts are divided into two groups:
1) The Shruti
2) The Smriti
The Shruti are "seen", they were directly revealed to the semi-divine rishis of old who passed them down.
The Smriti are "heard", they are merely passed down as tradition only.
Shruti:
- Vedas
- Brahmanas
- Upanishads
Smriti:
- Ramayana
- Mahabharata
- Bhagavad Gita
The Smriti are epic poems and the deuterocanon, while the canon is the Vedic complex.
The distinction is much more ambiguous in reality then in theory.
Buddhism: Canon by Selection
Two major books:
1) Poli Canon
2) Lotus Sutra
The Poli Canon contains the Tripitaka (Three Baskets) and is the oldest Buddhist writings.
The Tripitaka is associated with the older, more traditional form of Buddhism, Theravada Buddhism.
The Lotus Sutra is associated with the more recent and more innovative form of Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism.
Chinese and Japanese Religions
Scriptures and Canon are not easily adapted for Far East Religions.
Religion/Scriptures
Daoism - The Doodejing & the Zhuangzi
Confucianism - The Analects
Shinto - The Kojiki, the Nihong and the Amatsu Narito
The Daodejing contains the wisdom of Lao Tzu, the founder of Daoism.
The Zhuangzi is a collection of anecdotal essays by the teacher Laozi (but probably not the same Laozi/Lao-Tzu)
The Analects is the teachings of Confucius.
The Kojiki is the official Japanese traditional myth. The Nihangi is a supplement to the Kojiki. The Amatsu Nihong is a book of standard prayers and rituals of Shinto.
The Singularity of the Christian Scriptures
The Christian Scriptures is different from all other Scriptures and all Scriptures are unique in their own way.
All Scriptures contain some truths, if truth is meant as that which corresponds to reality.
However, if truth is understood under the coherence theory of truth rather than the correspondence theory of truth then no religions can share truth because they will be truths from differing systems.
Cornelius van Til argued that even knowledge of a flower is different for a Christian and non-Christian. To the Christian, a flower is the creation of a personal God whereas it is a product of chance formation of matter to a non-Christian.
Other Scriptures also contain some wisdom. They also contain some religious truths.
That said, the Bible is sufficient. All we (as Christians) have is the Bible and all we need is the Bible.
There is no deuterocannon in Christianity.
Religious truths in other Scriptures can only be duplications of revealed truths in the Bible.
Other Scriptures do not contain special revelation. But other Scriptures can have a basis in general revelation.
Subsequent Reaction to Schmidt & Original Monotheism
Whether or not one accepts Schmidt's theory it is no longer possible to strictly adhere to an evolutionary theory of religion in light of Schmidt's anthropological evidence.
The most common reaction to Schmidt is to reject his conclusions on an idealogical basis.
Joseph M. Kitasawa claims that while historical evidence is good in the origin theory, any religion's origin is ultimately answerable with metaphysical answers.
Others, like many post-modernists, including David Adams Leeming, claim that religion arises out of a specific social context. Historical investigation is wholly absent from this type of analysis.
Raffaele Pettazzoni attempts to bridge the gap of extreme historistic theories and purely a historical phenomenology. He gave history its due place, but did not draw such strong conclusions as Schmidt.
Pettazzoni maintained that the Supreme god of primitive cultures did not constitute monotheistic religion because that god was a creator and sustainer god, but a remote god nonetheless. He argued that only reform from polytheism could lead to true monotheism.
Summary
There is good reason to believe that religion began with the awareness of a single, creator God.
The God of original monotheism is identical to the God of Scripture in his basic attributes.
The persistence of monotheism can be attributed to the historical continuity with the awareness of God by the first human beings and its reinforcement in general revelation.
General revelation has two dimensions:
1) An intuitive one
2) A rational one
Both yield:
1) Knowledge of the existence of God
2) Knowledge of God's attributes
3) Knowledge of a fundamental moral sense
Chapter 3 - Special Revelation and Non-Christian Scriptures
Christianity maintains that special revelation is located in the Old Testament and New Testament, as well as in Jesus Christ himself.
There are many non-Christian scriptures, but the nature of Scripture is radically different in each religion.
Corduan's "The Protestant Fallacy" is reading other religions' scriptures as one would read the Christian Scriptures. Since scriptural nature varies from religion to religion there can be no single way of reading or regarding Scriptures. One cannot assume the role of Scripture in any religion is identical to the role of Scripture in Christianity.
The Protestant Fallacy
Classical Protestantism holds that the Bible is the literal Word of God and thus, the text is inspired by God.
Protestantism asserts "sola scriptura". That is, there is no other source for propositional revelation other than the Bible.
Protestant Christianity is an "extremely book-bound form of religion" (Corduan, 57-58).
Protestant Christianity stands or falls by Scriptural assertions.
The Protestant fallacy is applying this "sola scriptura" mentality (which is appropriate for the Bible) to other religion's scriptures.
Judaism: The Deuterocanon as key to the Canon
The Protestant fallacy manifests itself when one assumes that to understand Judaism one must simply study the Old Testament.
This can lead to assertions like, "since the Jews no longer perform the ritual sacrifices they are required by their own scriptures, Judaism is internally incoherent".
The Scriptures of Judaism are identical with the Old Testament Canon of Christianity. These books are known in Judaism as the Tanak (TNK).
The Tanak is an acronym based on the Hebrew names of the three divisions of writings:
1) the Law - Torah
2) the Prophets - Nebiim
3) the Writings - Ketubim
When Jerusalem fell in A.D. 70 the Jews began writing down the interpretations of the Tanak which had been entirely oral before.
The Mishnah was produced around A.D. 500. Later, the Talmud was produced.
Since the production of the Talmud, all Judaism is Talmudic Judaism.
Orthodox Judaism holds that the Talmud, though not inspired, is expendable, but not revisable.
Other sects of Judaism, like Cabalistic movements accepted the Zohar as a supplement, but not a replacement, to the Talmud.
While the Tanak is the only Scripture in Judaism, all governance of life is done via the Talmud.
The Jewish Scriptures (for better or worse) must be interpreted through the lens of the Talmud.
Islam: The Qur'an as Event
The Qur'an is the compilation of what was revealed to Muhammad.
The Qur'an is merely excerpts from God's full book in heaven, the umm-al-kitub.
Muslims believe the Qur'an is as it is exactly as it was when it was revealed to Muhammad.
Despite its lofty place in Islam, the Qur'an was supplemented easy on by another book. The Hadith is a collection of the acts and sayings of Muhammad.
While the Hadith is not considered to be revealed like the Qur'an, it is nonetheless as binding as the Qur'an.
The value of the Qur'an within Islam has little to do with its content. The value lies in its very occurrence.
The Qur'an is utterly pristine, whereas other men's revelatory books like Moses' Law, David's Psalms and Jesus' Gospels while being products of revelation were distorted by their followers.
TO recognize the Qur'an is more important than to read it.
The Qur'an is not a human book at all; whereas, the Bible is wholly human and wholly divine.
Muslims believe that the Qur'an mediates God's presence into their lives.
Even in non-Arabic speaking countries the Qur'an is devoutly recited in Arabic. Recitation of the Qur'an is the most important function of the Qur'an in the Muslim community.
Zoroastrianism: A Ritual Accumulation
Similar to the Bible, the canon of Zoroastrianism is a collection of works spanning many centuries.
The Zoroastrianism Scripture is called the Avesta.
The oldest part of the Avesta is the Yasna, which contains hymns called the Gathas, some of which date back to Zoroaster (6th century B.C.).
The Videvdat is the newest part of the Avesta and dates from when Zoroastrianism was the State religion of Iran (A.D. 226 - 637).
The Avesta is not a great source for authoritative information about Zoroastrianism because the language is so impenetrable.
The language of the Gathas is called Avesta because it is simply so different from any other languages.
"One scholar of Iranian religion [H.S. Nybers] has maintained that the Gathas are so difficult to understand because they are intentional gibberish" (Corduan, 62).
Even in the Zoroastrian community, the Avesta is not supposed to be a source of information.
The Avesta is a ritual text used to recite as worship and purification.
Sikhism: A day in the Life of the Book
The Adi Granth is the Scripture of Sikhism.
Nanak (1469-1539) founded Sikhism as a way to bridge Hinduism and Islam. He taught that there is only one God whose nature lies beyond human reason and religious imagery.
Nanak was considered a holy guru by his followers. He was then followed by 9 other holy gurus, each seen as the embodiment of divine light.
Arjan Dev, the 5th Guru compiled all his and the previous gurus' chants and hymns into the Adi Granth.
Gobind Singh (1666-1708) the 10th and final guru, declared that there would be no more gurus and the Adi Granth would be the guru forever more.
From then on the book itself, which is displayed in the Golden Shrine of Amritsa has been recognized as true and binding by all Sikhs.
The Adi Granth is the very embodiment of God.
The Adi Granth functions in two ways:
1) It is the hymn book of the congregation
2) It is venerated as the holy guru.
The actual book is put to sleep in a bed at night and woken up and placed on an altar each morning.
"The basic function of the Adi Granth is an object of veneration, not as a record of revelation" (Corduan, 65).
Baha'i : A Canon Plus a Canon
Baha'i is a young religion founded by Baha'ullah.
Baha'ullah is considered to be a manifestation of God. He was the 9th manifestation after Abraham, Krishna, Moses, Zoroaster, Buddha, Jesus, Muhammad, the Bab and Baha'ullah.
Baha'ullah taught that all these other prophets had inspired writings and that his own writings complete the canon of world Scriptures for the time being.
The Baha'i Scriptures should be read in a similar fashion as the Protestant Christian Bible is, but the Baha'i Scriptures are paralleled by all the other 8 world Scriptures, whereas the Bible stands alone.
Hinduism: A Protean Canon
Eastern religions have sacred texts in a very different way then to Western religions, especially Christianity.
Hindu sacred texts are divided into two groups:
1) The Shruti
2) The Smriti
The Shruti are "seen", they were directly revealed to the semi-divine rishis of old who passed them down.
The Smriti are "heard", they are merely passed down as tradition only.
Shruti:
- Vedas
- Brahmanas
- Upanishads
Smriti:
- Ramayana
- Mahabharata
- Bhagavad Gita
The Smriti are epic poems and the deuterocanon, while the canon is the Vedic complex.
The distinction is much more ambiguous in reality then in theory.
Buddhism: Canon by Selection
Two major books:
1) Poli Canon
2) Lotus Sutra
The Poli Canon contains the Tripitaka (Three Baskets) and is the oldest Buddhist writings.
The Tripitaka is associated with the older, more traditional form of Buddhism, Theravada Buddhism.
The Lotus Sutra is associated with the more recent and more innovative form of Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism.
Chinese and Japanese Religions
Scriptures and Canon are not easily adapted for Far East Religions.
Religion/Scriptures
Daoism - The Doodejing & the Zhuangzi
Confucianism - The Analects
Shinto - The Kojiki, the Nihong and the Amatsu Narito
The Daodejing contains the wisdom of Lao Tzu, the founder of Daoism.
The Zhuangzi is a collection of anecdotal essays by the teacher Laozi (but probably not the same Laozi/Lao-Tzu)
The Analects is the teachings of Confucius.
The Kojiki is the official Japanese traditional myth. The Nihangi is a supplement to the Kojiki. The Amatsu Nihong is a book of standard prayers and rituals of Shinto.
The Singularity of the Christian Scriptures
The Christian Scriptures is different from all other Scriptures and all Scriptures are unique in their own way.
All Scriptures contain some truths, if truth is meant as that which corresponds to reality.
However, if truth is understood under the coherence theory of truth rather than the correspondence theory of truth then no religions can share truth because they will be truths from differing systems.
Cornelius van Til argued that even knowledge of a flower is different for a Christian and non-Christian. To the Christian, a flower is the creation of a personal God whereas it is a product of chance formation of matter to a non-Christian.
Other Scriptures also contain some wisdom. They also contain some religious truths.
That said, the Bible is sufficient. All we (as Christians) have is the Bible and all we need is the Bible.
There is no deuterocannon in Christianity.
Religious truths in other Scriptures can only be duplications of revealed truths in the Bible.
Other Scriptures do not contain special revelation. But other Scriptures can have a basis in general revelation.
Tuesday, April 10, 2007
Class notes on Salvation
(Originally written April 10, 2007 in Book 15)
(Test Thursday: 4/12/07)
Salvation: Different Concepts
Gandhi - "Religions are different roads converging to the same point".
Two main traditions:
1) Western
- Middle East Originated/Abrahamic
- Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Islam
- Problem: Our spiritual condition
2) Eastern
- Indic
- Subcontinent originated
- Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism,
- Problem: Our very existence (karma)
Christianity problem of salvation:
-Utter inability to restore a relationship with God (total depravity)
Islam: Test of Submission
-Life is a test to see how obedient we can be to Allah
The Hindu Dilemma
-Salvation is the escape from the never ending cycle of reincarnation (moksha)
How do you escape?
Vedantic Monism: Atman = Brahman
- Find how to become identical with God
Principles of Bhakti (Way of Devotion)
- Cling to one particular god to escape from the cycle of samsara
- This is not parallel to a holy God or a parallel to sin offending the god
3 Main Bhakti Sects
Vaishnavites - Worship of Vishnu or his avatars (incarnations) i.e. Krishna/Rama
Shaivites - Worship of Shiva
Shakti - Worship goddesses like Kali
Salvation from Rama, "Grace" in Hinduism
Monkey School: We must cling to Rama to achieve salvation
Cat School - Rama saves us apart from our works
Often when people refer to the "grace" of other religions they are using it to mean "mercy", not a synonymous term with the Christian concept of Grace.
Major Splits in Hinduism
Way of Works:
- Karma marga
- Brahminical Ritual
Way of Knowledge:
- Jñana Marga
- Vedanta
- Atman-Brahman
Way of Devotion:
- Bhakti Marga
Buddhist conception of salvation:
4 Noble Truths:
1) To live is to suffer
2) Suffering is caused by desire
3) To eliminate suffering one must eliminate desire
4) To eliminate desire one must follow the 8-fold path
- Right concentration
- Right View
- Right intention
- Right speech
- Right action (10 Precepts)
- Right livelihood
- Right effort
- Right meditation
Salvation is ultimately elimination of one's self
Pure Land Buddhism- conception of "grace"
"Jodo-Shin-Shu" aka Pure Land
- Worships the Buddha Amida
- Amdia became a buddha in Heaven (Dhyani Buddha)
- Buddha of the West
- Amida created a "pure land" for people who chant to him. Anyone who chants to him will be reborn in this pure land as a male so as to be closer to achieving nirvana.
Obviously, the Pure Land Buddhism's conception of grace is drastically different from Christianity's conception of Grace.
Jainism
Goal: to escape from the cycle of reincarnation and the elimination of karma.
Mahavira (6th Century B.C.) founded Jainism. His story is similar to the Buddha. Mahavira received enlightenment, but unlike the Buddha, retained his ascetic lifestyle.
Tirthankaras - teachers of Jainism
Mahavira was the last of the 24 Tirthankaras.
Two Main Divisions:
1) Shvetambara - "Clad in White"
2) Disambara - "Clad in atmosphere"
In the Shvetambara women are are eligible for salvation, but in the Disambara women are ineligible for salvation.
Karma: Jainism believes in individual souls (as opposed to Buddhism and Hinduism). This is the Jiva.
Jiva, left to itself would rise to the top of the universe. But, Karma adds physical Ajiva to the soul, weighing it down. Ajiva causes the soul to sink.
Salvation is the removing of Ajiva (dead matter) from one's soul.
The most important principle of Jainism is ahimsa.
Conclusion
Religions do not just have different ways of salvation, but their conceptions of salvation are very different.
(Test Thursday: 4/12/07)
Salvation: Different Concepts
Gandhi - "Religions are different roads converging to the same point".
Two main traditions:
1) Western
- Middle East Originated/Abrahamic
- Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Islam
- Problem: Our spiritual condition
2) Eastern
- Indic
- Subcontinent originated
- Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism,
- Problem: Our very existence (karma)
Christianity problem of salvation:
-Utter inability to restore a relationship with God (total depravity)
Islam: Test of Submission
-Life is a test to see how obedient we can be to Allah
The Hindu Dilemma
-Salvation is the escape from the never ending cycle of reincarnation (moksha)
How do you escape?
Vedantic Monism: Atman = Brahman
- Find how to become identical with God
Principles of Bhakti (Way of Devotion)
- Cling to one particular god to escape from the cycle of samsara
- This is not parallel to a holy God or a parallel to sin offending the god
3 Main Bhakti Sects
Vaishnavites - Worship of Vishnu or his avatars (incarnations) i.e. Krishna/Rama
Shaivites - Worship of Shiva
Shakti - Worship goddesses like Kali
Salvation from Rama, "Grace" in Hinduism
Monkey School: We must cling to Rama to achieve salvation
Cat School - Rama saves us apart from our works
Often when people refer to the "grace" of other religions they are using it to mean "mercy", not a synonymous term with the Christian concept of Grace.
Major Splits in Hinduism
Way of Works:
- Karma marga
- Brahminical Ritual
Way of Knowledge:
- Jñana Marga
- Vedanta
- Atman-Brahman
Way of Devotion:
- Bhakti Marga
Buddhist conception of salvation:
4 Noble Truths:
1) To live is to suffer
2) Suffering is caused by desire
3) To eliminate suffering one must eliminate desire
4) To eliminate desire one must follow the 8-fold path
- Right concentration
- Right View
- Right intention
- Right speech
- Right action (10 Precepts)
- Right livelihood
- Right effort
- Right meditation
Salvation is ultimately elimination of one's self
Pure Land Buddhism- conception of "grace"
"Jodo-Shin-Shu" aka Pure Land
- Worships the Buddha Amida
- Amdia became a buddha in Heaven (Dhyani Buddha)
- Buddha of the West
- Amida created a "pure land" for people who chant to him. Anyone who chants to him will be reborn in this pure land as a male so as to be closer to achieving nirvana.
Obviously, the Pure Land Buddhism's conception of grace is drastically different from Christianity's conception of Grace.
Jainism
Goal: to escape from the cycle of reincarnation and the elimination of karma.
Mahavira (6th Century B.C.) founded Jainism. His story is similar to the Buddha. Mahavira received enlightenment, but unlike the Buddha, retained his ascetic lifestyle.
Tirthankaras - teachers of Jainism
Mahavira was the last of the 24 Tirthankaras.
Two Main Divisions:
1) Shvetambara - "Clad in White"
2) Disambara - "Clad in atmosphere"
In the Shvetambara women are are eligible for salvation, but in the Disambara women are ineligible for salvation.
Karma: Jainism believes in individual souls (as opposed to Buddhism and Hinduism). This is the Jiva.
Jiva, left to itself would rise to the top of the universe. But, Karma adds physical Ajiva to the soul, weighing it down. Ajiva causes the soul to sink.
Salvation is the removing of Ajiva (dead matter) from one's soul.
The most important principle of Jainism is ahimsa.
Conclusion
Religions do not just have different ways of salvation, but their conceptions of salvation are very different.
Monday, March 26, 2007
Quick survey of world religions
(Originally Written March 26, 2007 in Book 15)
A Tapestry of Faiths
The Common Threads Between Christianity & World Religions
Winfried Corduan
Intervarsity Press: Downers Grove, IL. 2002
Chapter 1: Asking the right Questions
Insofar as Christianity is the religion that expresses the preeminence of Christ, Christianity alone is true and worthwhile.
The relationship between Christianity and other religions have many dimensions of similarity.
1. The Soteriological Dimension
2. The Content Dimension
There are many beliefs that Christianity shares with other religions.
3. The Revelatory Dimension
Many religions claim truth is grounded in revelation.
4. The Apologetic Dimension
5. The Moral Dimension
Most religions include a moral system and many areas resemble each other.
6. The Communication Dimension
A Very Brief History of Religion
Traditional/tribal religions in contrast to enscripturated religions:
Traditional religions are closely tied to their local culture.
Traditional religions tend to be animistic and ritualistic.
They recognize nature spirits and ancestor spirits. Frequently they recognize a high god in the sky.
Western Religions in contrast to Eastern Traditions
Western traditions are largely monotheistic like Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Islam and Baha'i.
Monotheistic Western Religions Normally have:
1. A strong monotheistic emphasis
2. A strong ethical emphasis
3. A positive approach to history. History is an unfolding of divine revelation and action.
Eastern religions are religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Daoism, Confucianism and Shinto.
Buddhism and Jainism are direct offshoots of Hinduism.
Eastern religions are more divers in belief than Western Religions.
3. Beliefs in Contrast to Cultus:
Cultus is the rituals, altars, hymns, temples, offerings and modes of prayer.
The relationship between a belief system and its cultus can be extremely elastic.
I. Judaism
Origin: Moses, 15th Century B.C.
Essential Beliefs and Practices:
- Monotheism
- obedience to a divinely revealed law
Scriptures:
- The Hebrew Scriptures
- Interpretations of the Scriptures (i.e. the Talmud)
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Orthodox
- Conservative
- Reform
II. Zoroastrianism
Origin: Zoroaster, 6th Century B.C.
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Monotheism
- Conflict between God (Ahura Mazda) and the evil Spirt (Angra Mainyu)
- Ethical purity
- Ritual cleanliness
Major Contemporary Division
- None
III. Christianity
Origin: Christ, 1st Century A.D.
Essential Beliefs and Practices:
- Trinitarian Monotheism
- Jesus as the Messiah
Scriptures:
- The Bible (Old and New Testaments)
Major Contemporary Divisions:
- Eastern Orthodox
- Roman Catholic
- Protestant
IV. Islam
Origin: Muhammad, (A.D. 570 - 632)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Monotheism
- Allah
- Judgment based on their obedience to God's requirement
Scriptures
- The Qu'ran
- Hadith
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Sunnite
- Shi'ites
V. Baha'i
Origin: Baha'ullah 19th Century
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Baha'ullah was the manifestation of God
- Unity of all religions
- New World Order
Scriptures:
- The writings of Baha'ullah
Major Contemporary Divisions
- None
VI. Hinduism
Origin: 1500 B.C., religion of the Aryans who invaded the Indian subcontinent
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Extremely diverse
- Samsara (reincarnation)
- Karma
Scriptures
- The Vedas
- The Ramayana
- The Mahabharata
- Brahmans
- Sutras
- Puranas
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Monastic Groups
- Bhakti (personalistic)
- Vaishnavitas
- Shaivites
- Shaktites
VII. Buddhism
Origin: Gautama Buddha (600 B.C.)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Salvation = deliverance from the reincarnation cycle
- Nirvana
Scriptures:
- The Tripitaka
- The Lotus Sutra
- Other sutras
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Theravada (Hinayana)
- Mahayana
- Zen
- Pure Land
- Soka Gakkai
- Tibetan
VIII. Jainism
Origin: Mahavira (600 BC)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Redemption by elimination of solid karma matter from one's soul
- Worship of the Tirthankaras
Scriptures
- The Agamas
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Digambaras
- Svetambaras
IX. Sikhism
Origin: Guru Nanak (16th Century A.D.)
Essential beliefs and Practices:
- There is one God who is represented on earth by the Holy Book the Adi Granth.
- Escape from the reincarnation cycle
Scriptures
- Adi Granth
Major Contemporary Divisions
- None
X. Daoism
Origins - Lao Zi (Lao-Tzu)
Essential beliefs and practices
- Yin & Yang
Scriptures
- Daodejing
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Daoism is interconnected with other religions, especially Buddhism and Confucianism
XI. Confucianism
Origins: Confucius (6th Century B.C.)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Ethical System
Scriptures
- Analects
Major Contemporary Divisions
- None
XII. Shinto
A Tapestry of Faiths
The Common Threads Between Christianity & World Religions
Winfried Corduan
Intervarsity Press: Downers Grove, IL. 2002
Chapter 1: Asking the right Questions
Insofar as Christianity is the religion that expresses the preeminence of Christ, Christianity alone is true and worthwhile.
The relationship between Christianity and other religions have many dimensions of similarity.
1. The Soteriological Dimension
2. The Content Dimension
There are many beliefs that Christianity shares with other religions.
3. The Revelatory Dimension
Many religions claim truth is grounded in revelation.
4. The Apologetic Dimension
5. The Moral Dimension
Most religions include a moral system and many areas resemble each other.
6. The Communication Dimension
A Very Brief History of Religion
Traditional/tribal religions in contrast to enscripturated religions:
Traditional religions are closely tied to their local culture.
Traditional religions tend to be animistic and ritualistic.
They recognize nature spirits and ancestor spirits. Frequently they recognize a high god in the sky.
Western Religions in contrast to Eastern Traditions
Western traditions are largely monotheistic like Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Islam and Baha'i.
Monotheistic Western Religions Normally have:
1. A strong monotheistic emphasis
2. A strong ethical emphasis
3. A positive approach to history. History is an unfolding of divine revelation and action.
Eastern religions are religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Daoism, Confucianism and Shinto.
Buddhism and Jainism are direct offshoots of Hinduism.
Eastern religions are more divers in belief than Western Religions.
3. Beliefs in Contrast to Cultus:
Cultus is the rituals, altars, hymns, temples, offerings and modes of prayer.
The relationship between a belief system and its cultus can be extremely elastic.
I. Judaism
Origin: Moses, 15th Century B.C.
Essential Beliefs and Practices:
- Monotheism
- obedience to a divinely revealed law
Scriptures:
- The Hebrew Scriptures
- Interpretations of the Scriptures (i.e. the Talmud)
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Orthodox
- Conservative
- Reform
II. Zoroastrianism
Origin: Zoroaster, 6th Century B.C.
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Monotheism
- Conflict between God (Ahura Mazda) and the evil Spirt (Angra Mainyu)
- Ethical purity
- Ritual cleanliness
Major Contemporary Division
- None
III. Christianity
Origin: Christ, 1st Century A.D.
Essential Beliefs and Practices:
- Trinitarian Monotheism
- Jesus as the Messiah
Scriptures:
- The Bible (Old and New Testaments)
Major Contemporary Divisions:
- Eastern Orthodox
- Roman Catholic
- Protestant
IV. Islam
Origin: Muhammad, (A.D. 570 - 632)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Monotheism
- Allah
- Judgment based on their obedience to God's requirement
Scriptures
- The Qu'ran
- Hadith
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Sunnite
- Shi'ites
V. Baha'i
Origin: Baha'ullah 19th Century
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Baha'ullah was the manifestation of God
- Unity of all religions
- New World Order
Scriptures:
- The writings of Baha'ullah
Major Contemporary Divisions
- None
VI. Hinduism
Origin: 1500 B.C., religion of the Aryans who invaded the Indian subcontinent
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Extremely diverse
- Samsara (reincarnation)
- Karma
Scriptures
- The Vedas
- The Ramayana
- The Mahabharata
- Brahmans
- Sutras
- Puranas
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Monastic Groups
- Bhakti (personalistic)
- Vaishnavitas
- Shaivites
- Shaktites
VII. Buddhism
Origin: Gautama Buddha (600 B.C.)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Salvation = deliverance from the reincarnation cycle
- Nirvana
Scriptures:
- The Tripitaka
- The Lotus Sutra
- Other sutras
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Theravada (Hinayana)
- Mahayana
- Zen
- Pure Land
- Soka Gakkai
- Tibetan
VIII. Jainism
Origin: Mahavira (600 BC)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Redemption by elimination of solid karma matter from one's soul
- Worship of the Tirthankaras
Scriptures
- The Agamas
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Digambaras
- Svetambaras
IX. Sikhism
Origin: Guru Nanak (16th Century A.D.)
Essential beliefs and Practices:
- There is one God who is represented on earth by the Holy Book the Adi Granth.
- Escape from the reincarnation cycle
Scriptures
- Adi Granth
Major Contemporary Divisions
- None
X. Daoism
Origins - Lao Zi (Lao-Tzu)
Essential beliefs and practices
- Yin & Yang
Scriptures
- Daodejing
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Daoism is interconnected with other religions, especially Buddhism and Confucianism
XI. Confucianism
Origins: Confucius (6th Century B.C.)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Ethical System
Scriptures
- Analects
Major Contemporary Divisions
- None
XII. Shinto
Thursday, March 22, 2007
Sin in various religions
(Originally written March 22, 2007 in Book 15)
Effects of the Breach of the Rules
Western Religions - disrupts the relationship between God and man. Therefore, the need to restore the relationship.
Eastern religions: caught up in the endless cycle of karma-samsara (reincarnation). Therefore, the need to escape the cycle
Christianity
- Fallenness (Original Sin, Total Depravity)
- We are not sinful because we are finite
- Sin is not tied to finitude or creation
- Fallenness effects our spirit, mind and will
- Need for forgiveness
Judaism & Islam
- No fallenness/original sin
- sin constitutes damage
- need for greater effort
Hinduism
- The problems are engendered by the very fact that one exists as an entity in the universe
- The Hindu conception of sin:
PAAPA or ENAS > "sin" against the gods or against the rules of Dharma
- But, sin (PAAPA or ENAS) is not the central issue of Hinduism
- Karma is the central focus
- Karma originally meant "motion", then "duties", then "duties of your caste"
- Karma has consequences. What you do influences what you will be in your next life.
- Samsara (reincarnation) is a very negative and oppressive concept in the east.
Entrapment by karma (personal)
- Evil people must be reincarnated
- "I hurl these monsters, cruel... people into the never-ending cycle of rebirths (Bhagavad Gita)
- Good people can continue in heaven, but then must be reincarnated (Bhagavad Gita 9:20-21)
- People who do nothing must be reincarnated
- One does not attain freedom from the bondage of Karma by merely abstain from work (Bhagavad Gita 3:4).
Cosmic entrapment by Karma
- The same multitude of beings comes into existence again and again at the arrival of the creative cycle and is annihilated, inevitably, at the arrival of the destructive cycle (Bhagavad Gita 8:19).
Conclusion
- There is some similarity among the religions as to the basic values of life, marriage, truth and property.
- These values are embedded in different contexts
- The values are expressed in rules that play different roles in the religions
- The effects of breaking the rules are very different from religion to religion
Effects of the Breach of the Rules
Western Religions - disrupts the relationship between God and man. Therefore, the need to restore the relationship.
Eastern religions: caught up in the endless cycle of karma-samsara (reincarnation). Therefore, the need to escape the cycle
Christianity
- Fallenness (Original Sin, Total Depravity)
- We are not sinful because we are finite
- Sin is not tied to finitude or creation
- Fallenness effects our spirit, mind and will
- Need for forgiveness
Judaism & Islam
- No fallenness/original sin
- sin constitutes damage
- need for greater effort
Hinduism
- The problems are engendered by the very fact that one exists as an entity in the universe
- The Hindu conception of sin:
PAAPA or ENAS > "sin" against the gods or against the rules of Dharma
- But, sin (PAAPA or ENAS) is not the central issue of Hinduism
- Karma is the central focus
- Karma originally meant "motion", then "duties", then "duties of your caste"
- Karma has consequences. What you do influences what you will be in your next life.
- Samsara (reincarnation) is a very negative and oppressive concept in the east.
Entrapment by karma (personal)
- Evil people must be reincarnated
- "I hurl these monsters, cruel... people into the never-ending cycle of rebirths (Bhagavad Gita)
- Good people can continue in heaven, but then must be reincarnated (Bhagavad Gita 9:20-21)
- People who do nothing must be reincarnated
- One does not attain freedom from the bondage of Karma by merely abstain from work (Bhagavad Gita 3:4).
Cosmic entrapment by Karma
- The same multitude of beings comes into existence again and again at the arrival of the creative cycle and is annihilated, inevitably, at the arrival of the destructive cycle (Bhagavad Gita 8:19).
Conclusion
- There is some similarity among the religions as to the basic values of life, marriage, truth and property.
- These values are embedded in different contexts
- The values are expressed in rules that play different roles in the religions
- The effects of breaking the rules are very different from religion to religion
Saturday, March 17, 2007
Functions of Rules in Various Religions
(Originally written March 17, 2007 in Book 15)
Class Notes
Moral purity vs. Ceremonial Purity
Ritual defilement can:
1) Occur if something is so evil that it may not be touched
2) Occur if something is so holy that it may not be touched
Defilement results in either
1) of one's self
2) of the holy object
Taboo - ultimate form of ritual defilement
Functions of the Rules in Various Religions
Western Religions:
- God as Lawgiver
- People are accountable to God
- Includes interpersonal dimension
Eastern Religions
- Rules are intrinsic to the universe
Lutheran Conception of Law
- 1st use of the Law: makes possible a livable society
- 2nd use of the Law: "Schoolmaster" - display our sinfulness to drive us to the Grace in Christ
- 3rd use of the law: evidence of regeneration
Judaism conception of Law
- The law demonstrates the righteousness that is characteristic for the people of God.
- makes the world a better place
- limited demands on Gentiles
- not tied to heaven or hell in a strict sense
Islamic conception of Law
- Rules as a test to qualify for paradise
5 Pillars of Islam:
1) Confession
2) Prayer
3) Fasting
4) Almsgiving
5) Pilgrimage
Indic Religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism
- Rules are intrinsic to the universe
- divinity revealed the law
- binding on all beings, including gods
Confucianism's conception of rules
- rules bring about harmony among people
- harmony among people brings harmony in the universe
Class Notes
Moral purity vs. Ceremonial Purity
Ritual defilement can:
1) Occur if something is so evil that it may not be touched
2) Occur if something is so holy that it may not be touched
Defilement results in either
1) of one's self
2) of the holy object
Taboo - ultimate form of ritual defilement
Functions of the Rules in Various Religions
Western Religions:
- God as Lawgiver
- People are accountable to God
- Includes interpersonal dimension
Eastern Religions
- Rules are intrinsic to the universe
Lutheran Conception of Law
- 1st use of the Law: makes possible a livable society
- 2nd use of the Law: "Schoolmaster" - display our sinfulness to drive us to the Grace in Christ
- 3rd use of the law: evidence of regeneration
Judaism conception of Law
- The law demonstrates the righteousness that is characteristic for the people of God.
- makes the world a better place
- limited demands on Gentiles
- not tied to heaven or hell in a strict sense
Islamic conception of Law
- Rules as a test to qualify for paradise
5 Pillars of Islam:
1) Confession
2) Prayer
3) Fasting
4) Almsgiving
5) Pilgrimage
Indic Religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism
- Rules are intrinsic to the universe
- divinity revealed the law
- binding on all beings, including gods
Confucianism's conception of rules
- rules bring about harmony among people
- harmony among people brings harmony in the universe
Sunday, February 25, 2007
Chapter 14 - Pocket Guide to World Religions
(Originally written February 25, 2007 in Book 14)
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 14 - Sikhism
Name
Sikhism comes from the Punjab word "Sikh" which means "a disciple".
A Sikh is a disciple of the Guru Nanak, a 16th century guru.
Numbers and Distribution
There are 23 million Sikhs in the world, most of whom live in the Indian state of Punjab.
There as many as 250,000 Sikhs in North America.
Symbols
There are two unique symbols of Sikhism.
The Khanda represents the Sikh faith to the outside world. Khanda means "double-edged sword"
The Chakkar is a circular throwing weapon.
The Khanda and the chakkar together symbolizes the unity of God and his all-pervasive presence.
The Kirpans are the two swords on the side standing for the spiritual and political dimensions of the Sikh community.
There is also the symbol that means "one and only one" called the "Ekankar".
History
Sikhism began as an attempted healing of Muslims and Hindus in 16th century India.
Guru Nanak (1469-1538) had a Hindu father and Muslim mother. He taught that, "There is no Hindu and there is no Muslim" (Corduan, 129).
Nanak's followers saw him as a teacher of reconciliation and as the embodiment of divine light.
Conflict between the Sikhs and Muslims erupted and Sikhism changed from a community aiming at peace and unity into a virtual army.
There were 10 gurus during the first 2 centuries of Sikhism.
The 5th Guru, Guru Arjan Dev collected the hymns and chants of all the gurus and the Granth Sahib, written by Nanak.
The Granth Sahib means "exalted book" and is the holy book of Sikhism.
Arjan Dev was the first martyr of Sikhism. He was boiled in a vat of water by the Muslim ruler.
Hargobind, Arjan Dev's son, established the military side of Sikhism.
Gabind Singh, the 10th Guru, declared himself the last guru and that the Granth would be the only source of God's embodiment from then on.
The Sikhs allied themselves against the Muslims and Hindus with the British, but fought against the British in the "Sikh war" of 1846.
When India and Pakistan became their own colonies in 1947, the Sikh area of Punjab was fought over by both sides.
In 1984, a group of Sikhs took over its own Golden Temple in Amritsar, the original headquarters of Sikhism. Prime Minister Indira Ghandi sent troops to liberate the temple. After much bloodshed, Indira prevailed, but she was assassinated by her own Sikh bodyguards a few months later.
Scriptures
The holy book of Sikhism is the Granth.
The Granth is recognized as most whole in the form of Arjan Dev's collection.
The Granth is the embodiment of God.
Major Beliefs
Nanak sought to find spiritual truth behind the external forms of Islam and Hinduism.
He took Hinduism's belief in Karma and reincarnation and meshed it with Islam's belief in one true God. He stated that God should not be represented by idols.
He taught that we escaped the continuous reincarnation cycles by living a life of divine virtues and becoming one with God.
Nanak believed that God ought not be limited by what one specific religion teaches about him.
Subgroups
There is one major subgroup which virtually every one belongs to. The Khalsa, the military order begun by the 6th guru, Guru Hargobind.
Worship practices
There is a simple prayer service of chanting the Granth.
At the end of the chant everyone gets a sweet made of nuts and honey.
At this point everyone gets together for a meal. Everyone sits on the floor together eating the same food, symbolizing the equality of all human beings.
Religious Buildings
A Sikh temple is called a gurdwara. A gurdwara is usually a plain building on the inside and out. But the biggest ones, like the Golden Temple in Amritsar or the Gurdwara Bangla Sahib in Dehli are huge and highly ornate.
A gurdwara is usually domed and has the Sikh symbol displayed prominently.
A gurdwara has an altar for the Granth and a bed for the Granth to sleep in.
Non-Sikhs are welcome at the gurdwaras but they must wash their hands and feet and cover their heads.
A gurdwara must have a kitchen and a dining area for the important communal meal.
Home Practices
Devout Sikhs recite lengthy prayers every day, sometimes several times a day.
Homes and cars are often decorated with pictures of gurus, especially Guru Nanak. These pictures are not venerated because of Sikhism's anti-idolatry stance.
Clothing
Members of the Khalsa have 5 distinct features:
1) Long, uncut hair and beard-covered
2) A wooden comb inserted into the hair (Kanga)
3) An iron bracelet (Kara)
4) Shorts (Kachara)
5) A sword (Kirpan)
Diet
Fasting is forbidden because it is seen as a false piety
Calendar
Sikhs have many celebrations. The ten gurus' birthdays, the days of becoming a guru, and their days of death.
Until 1998, Sikhism observed a lunar calendar beginning with the birth of Guru Nanak in 1469. It switched to a solar year in 1998, but maintained New Year's as March 14. On March 14, 2005, the Sikh year 537 began.
Community is emphasized in Sikhism.
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 14 - Sikhism
Name
Sikhism comes from the Punjab word "Sikh" which means "a disciple".
A Sikh is a disciple of the Guru Nanak, a 16th century guru.
Numbers and Distribution
There are 23 million Sikhs in the world, most of whom live in the Indian state of Punjab.
There as many as 250,000 Sikhs in North America.
Symbols
There are two unique symbols of Sikhism.
The Khanda represents the Sikh faith to the outside world. Khanda means "double-edged sword"
The Chakkar is a circular throwing weapon.
The Khanda and the chakkar together symbolizes the unity of God and his all-pervasive presence.
The Kirpans are the two swords on the side standing for the spiritual and political dimensions of the Sikh community.
There is also the symbol that means "one and only one" called the "Ekankar".
History
Sikhism began as an attempted healing of Muslims and Hindus in 16th century India.
Guru Nanak (1469-1538) had a Hindu father and Muslim mother. He taught that, "There is no Hindu and there is no Muslim" (Corduan, 129).
Nanak's followers saw him as a teacher of reconciliation and as the embodiment of divine light.
Conflict between the Sikhs and Muslims erupted and Sikhism changed from a community aiming at peace and unity into a virtual army.
There were 10 gurus during the first 2 centuries of Sikhism.
The 5th Guru, Guru Arjan Dev collected the hymns and chants of all the gurus and the Granth Sahib, written by Nanak.
The Granth Sahib means "exalted book" and is the holy book of Sikhism.
Arjan Dev was the first martyr of Sikhism. He was boiled in a vat of water by the Muslim ruler.
Hargobind, Arjan Dev's son, established the military side of Sikhism.
Gabind Singh, the 10th Guru, declared himself the last guru and that the Granth would be the only source of God's embodiment from then on.
The Sikhs allied themselves against the Muslims and Hindus with the British, but fought against the British in the "Sikh war" of 1846.
When India and Pakistan became their own colonies in 1947, the Sikh area of Punjab was fought over by both sides.
In 1984, a group of Sikhs took over its own Golden Temple in Amritsar, the original headquarters of Sikhism. Prime Minister Indira Ghandi sent troops to liberate the temple. After much bloodshed, Indira prevailed, but she was assassinated by her own Sikh bodyguards a few months later.
Scriptures
The holy book of Sikhism is the Granth.
The Granth is recognized as most whole in the form of Arjan Dev's collection.
The Granth is the embodiment of God.
Major Beliefs
Nanak sought to find spiritual truth behind the external forms of Islam and Hinduism.
He took Hinduism's belief in Karma and reincarnation and meshed it with Islam's belief in one true God. He stated that God should not be represented by idols.
He taught that we escaped the continuous reincarnation cycles by living a life of divine virtues and becoming one with God.
Nanak believed that God ought not be limited by what one specific religion teaches about him.
Subgroups
There is one major subgroup which virtually every one belongs to. The Khalsa, the military order begun by the 6th guru, Guru Hargobind.
Worship practices
There is a simple prayer service of chanting the Granth.
At the end of the chant everyone gets a sweet made of nuts and honey.
At this point everyone gets together for a meal. Everyone sits on the floor together eating the same food, symbolizing the equality of all human beings.
Religious Buildings
A Sikh temple is called a gurdwara. A gurdwara is usually a plain building on the inside and out. But the biggest ones, like the Golden Temple in Amritsar or the Gurdwara Bangla Sahib in Dehli are huge and highly ornate.
A gurdwara is usually domed and has the Sikh symbol displayed prominently.
A gurdwara has an altar for the Granth and a bed for the Granth to sleep in.
Non-Sikhs are welcome at the gurdwaras but they must wash their hands and feet and cover their heads.
A gurdwara must have a kitchen and a dining area for the important communal meal.
Home Practices
Devout Sikhs recite lengthy prayers every day, sometimes several times a day.
Homes and cars are often decorated with pictures of gurus, especially Guru Nanak. These pictures are not venerated because of Sikhism's anti-idolatry stance.
Clothing
Members of the Khalsa have 5 distinct features:
1) Long, uncut hair and beard-covered
2) A wooden comb inserted into the hair (Kanga)
3) An iron bracelet (Kara)
4) Shorts (Kachara)
5) A sword (Kirpan)
Diet
Fasting is forbidden because it is seen as a false piety
Calendar
Sikhs have many celebrations. The ten gurus' birthdays, the days of becoming a guru, and their days of death.
Until 1998, Sikhism observed a lunar calendar beginning with the birth of Guru Nanak in 1469. It switched to a solar year in 1998, but maintained New Year's as March 14. On March 14, 2005, the Sikh year 537 began.
Community is emphasized in Sikhism.
Thursday, February 22, 2007
Class notes on Scriptures of Various Religions
(Originally written on February 22, 2007 in Book 14)
Class Notes - Christianity & Religious Pluralism
The "Protestant Fallacy"
The Bible & Other Scriptures
General Revelation --> Natural Theology
(accesible to all human beings)
Romans 1:18-20 - "The wrath of God is being revealed from heaven against all the godlessness and wickedness of people, who suppress the truth by their wickedness, since what may be known about God is plain to them, because God has made it plain to them. For since the creation of the world God's invisible qualities - his eternal power and divine nature - have been clearly seen, being understood from what has been made, so that people are without excuse."
Special Revelation
- Writings
- Jesus Christ
Protestant Fallacy -- to assume that the scriptures of other religions function in the same way as the Bible in Christianity.
The "protestant view" of Scriptures:
- inspired
- authoritative
- sola scriptura
- sufficient
- only guid to faith and practice
- no deterero - canon
- theoretically, all of what we believe and do so is based on the bible
- all other users (recitation, symbolisms) are secondary
Religion - "Canonical Scriptures" - Duetero-Canonical
Judaism - Tanakh (Law, Prophets, Writings) - Mishnah, Talmud
Islam - Koran - Sunna/Hadith
Zoroastrianism - Avesta - None
Hinduism - Vedas, Brahmanas, Sutras, Upanishads - Ramayana, Mahabharata
Judaism
-Tanak: Torah, Prophets, Writings
-Mishnah & Talmud - interpretations of the Tanak
The Talmud supersedes the Torah in practice
2 basic thoughts in Jewish belief in pre-Christ/time of Christ
1) Shamai - conservative
2) Hillel - liberal
Jesus' run-ins were more often with the Shamai followers.
Rabbi Gamaliel was another important thinker. The Apostle Paul was a follower of Gamaliel.
The Talmud is the combination of two works: the Mishna & the Gemara
Islam
The Qur'an
-Sunna, Hadith
The primary purpose of the Qur'an is to present the presence of Allah and to substantiate Muhammad's claims. To recite it is more important than to understand it.
Zoroastrianism
Avesta - consists of many parts, spanning centuries
Hinduism
Hindu Scriptures A
-Shruti "heard"
- The four Vedas
- Brahmanas
- Sutras
- Law of Manu
- Upanishads
Smriti
- Mahabharata
- Bhagavad Gita
- Ramayana
-Puranas
Class Notes - Christianity & Religious Pluralism
The "Protestant Fallacy"
The Bible & Other Scriptures
General Revelation --> Natural Theology
(accesible to all human beings)
Romans 1:18-20 - "The wrath of God is being revealed from heaven against all the godlessness and wickedness of people, who suppress the truth by their wickedness, since what may be known about God is plain to them, because God has made it plain to them. For since the creation of the world God's invisible qualities - his eternal power and divine nature - have been clearly seen, being understood from what has been made, so that people are without excuse."
Special Revelation
- Writings
- Jesus Christ
Protestant Fallacy -- to assume that the scriptures of other religions function in the same way as the Bible in Christianity.
The "protestant view" of Scriptures:
- inspired
- authoritative
- sola scriptura
- sufficient
- only guid to faith and practice
- no deterero - canon
- theoretically, all of what we believe and do so is based on the bible
- all other users (recitation, symbolisms) are secondary
Religion - "Canonical Scriptures" - Duetero-Canonical
Judaism - Tanakh (Law, Prophets, Writings) - Mishnah, Talmud
Islam - Koran - Sunna/Hadith
Zoroastrianism - Avesta - None
Hinduism - Vedas, Brahmanas, Sutras, Upanishads - Ramayana, Mahabharata
Judaism
-Tanak: Torah, Prophets, Writings
-Mishnah & Talmud - interpretations of the Tanak
The Talmud supersedes the Torah in practice
2 basic thoughts in Jewish belief in pre-Christ/time of Christ
1) Shamai - conservative
2) Hillel - liberal
Jesus' run-ins were more often with the Shamai followers.
Rabbi Gamaliel was another important thinker. The Apostle Paul was a follower of Gamaliel.
The Talmud is the combination of two works: the Mishna & the Gemara
Islam
The Qur'an
-Sunna, Hadith
The primary purpose of the Qur'an is to present the presence of Allah and to substantiate Muhammad's claims. To recite it is more important than to understand it.
Zoroastrianism
Avesta - consists of many parts, spanning centuries
Hinduism
Hindu Scriptures A
-Shruti "heard"
- The four Vedas
- Brahmanas
- Sutras
- Law of Manu
- Upanishads
Smriti
- Mahabharata
- Bhagavad Gita
- Ramayana
-Puranas
Wednesday, February 21, 2007
Chapter 11 - Pocket Guide to World Religions (A)
(Originally written February 21, 2007 in Book 14)
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 11: New Religions
Introduction
All religions are constantly changing, but religions generally abhor change.
Definition
In order for something to be a "new religion" it must not be old and have the character of religion.
A "New Religion" is a religion that is still working to be recognized as a separate religion.
Aleph (formerly Aum Shinrikyo)
Chizuo Matsumoto (Shoko Asahara) formed a small Japanese group in 1995.
There are somewhere between 1500 - 25000 practitioners of Aleph.
It focuses on finding mystical knowledge through Hindu meditation and Yoga.
Shiva is important to Aleph.
Aleph believes that the world is going to end soon and that the practitioners were to hasten this end's by causing catastrophes.
The 1995 nerve gas attack in a Tokyo subway was carried out by followers of Aleph.
Ahmadiyya Islam
This is an Islamic movement that originated in Pakistan.
It is extremely pacifistic and opposed to all violence, including self-defense.
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1839-1908) was its founder and claimed to be the Islamic Mahdi, the second coming of Christ and the Hindu coming of Krishna.
There are two sects of Ahmadiyya Islam:
1) The Qadiyan group
- Sees Mirza Ghulam Ahmad as a prophet equal to Muhammad
2) The Lahore group
- sees Mirza Ghulam Ahmad as a reformer of Islam.
The Qadiyan group is exiled from Islam, but the Lahore group is recognized as a valid sect of Islam.
Ahmadiyya Islam actively recruits converts and claims 200 million followers.
Cao Dai
Originated in Vietnam in the 1920's.
Has up to 4 million followers.
It attempted to combine all the best aspects of religion into one practice using Christian, Buddhist and Hindu ideas.
It has become more of a mystical and occult practice that are tangential to its parent religions.
Christian Science
Founded by Mary Baker Eddy in 1875.
She combined traditional Christianity with Eastern philosophy and psychosomatic healing.
She taught that human illness was caused by the illusion that the material world was real.
Christian Science forbids the use of modern medicine.
Falun Gong (or Falun Dafa)
Li Hongzhi, its founder uses unsophisticated Daoist and Buddhist principles to promote health and material well-being.
Falun Gong claims 100 million followers and is heavily persecuted in the People's Republic of China.
Iskcon (Hare Krishna)
A long-standing movement in Hinduism, Hare Krishna is perceived as a cult.
Caitanya taught devotion to Krishna in the 16th century.
It claims that Krishna is the supreme personal godhead.
It came to the U.S. in 1969 under A.C. Bhaktivedanta Prabhupada.
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 11: New Religions
Introduction
All religions are constantly changing, but religions generally abhor change.
Definition
In order for something to be a "new religion" it must not be old and have the character of religion.
A "New Religion" is a religion that is still working to be recognized as a separate religion.
Aleph (formerly Aum Shinrikyo)
Chizuo Matsumoto (Shoko Asahara) formed a small Japanese group in 1995.
There are somewhere between 1500 - 25000 practitioners of Aleph.
It focuses on finding mystical knowledge through Hindu meditation and Yoga.
Shiva is important to Aleph.
Aleph believes that the world is going to end soon and that the practitioners were to hasten this end's by causing catastrophes.
The 1995 nerve gas attack in a Tokyo subway was carried out by followers of Aleph.
Ahmadiyya Islam
This is an Islamic movement that originated in Pakistan.
It is extremely pacifistic and opposed to all violence, including self-defense.
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1839-1908) was its founder and claimed to be the Islamic Mahdi, the second coming of Christ and the Hindu coming of Krishna.
There are two sects of Ahmadiyya Islam:
1) The Qadiyan group
- Sees Mirza Ghulam Ahmad as a prophet equal to Muhammad
2) The Lahore group
- sees Mirza Ghulam Ahmad as a reformer of Islam.
The Qadiyan group is exiled from Islam, but the Lahore group is recognized as a valid sect of Islam.
Ahmadiyya Islam actively recruits converts and claims 200 million followers.
Cao Dai
Originated in Vietnam in the 1920's.
Has up to 4 million followers.
It attempted to combine all the best aspects of religion into one practice using Christian, Buddhist and Hindu ideas.
It has become more of a mystical and occult practice that are tangential to its parent religions.
Christian Science
Founded by Mary Baker Eddy in 1875.
She combined traditional Christianity with Eastern philosophy and psychosomatic healing.
She taught that human illness was caused by the illusion that the material world was real.
Christian Science forbids the use of modern medicine.
Falun Gong (or Falun Dafa)
Li Hongzhi, its founder uses unsophisticated Daoist and Buddhist principles to promote health and material well-being.
Falun Gong claims 100 million followers and is heavily persecuted in the People's Republic of China.
Iskcon (Hare Krishna)
A long-standing movement in Hinduism, Hare Krishna is perceived as a cult.
Caitanya taught devotion to Krishna in the 16th century.
It claims that Krishna is the supreme personal godhead.
It came to the U.S. in 1969 under A.C. Bhaktivedanta Prabhupada.
Sunday, February 18, 2007
Chapter 9 - Pocket Guide to World Religions
(Originally written February 18, 2007 in Book 9)
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter Nine: Jainism
Name
Jainism is derived from the Sanskrit word jina. Tina means "conquerer". A Jain is a "follower of the conquerer". The conquerer refers to the founder of the religion, Mahavira.
To the outsider, Jainism appears similar to Hinduism.
Numbers and Distribution
There are 4 million Jains in the world today.
The vast majority live in India, but Kenya has a number of Jains because of Indian immigration.
There is an active Jain temple in Chicago.
Symbols
Jainism has many symbols but for a millennia it had no universal symbol.
In 1975, a global convention of Jains met to observe the 2500th anniversary of Mahavira's death and devised a single symbol. It combined five elements:
1. The outside is a person's torso, the shape Jains imagine the universe exists in.
2) The arc represents the head of the human shape, the dot represents those who have attained liberation.
3) The three dots stand for the three Jain principles: faith, right knowledge and right conduct
4) The swastika has many meanings: entanglement in the cycle of reincarnations, the four kinds of beings in need of salvation: gods, humans, animals and demons
5) the hand indicates a blessing and a warning. Inside the hand is a wheel with 24 spokes. Each spoke represents an ancient teacher (the Tirthankaras). Inside the wheel is the inscription "ahimsa" which means non-violence. Non-violence is the most basic principle of Jainism
History
Jainism was founded by Mahavira, who lived in the 6th century BC. He was the son of making who renounced his wealth and leisure to find enlightenment. He then lived a life of extreme self-mortification, punishing his body to liberate his soul. At the brink of death he experienced a flash of enlightenment.
Unlike the Buddha, Mahavira di not cease to live an ascetic life. He recruited others to emulate his lifestyle.
Jainism split from Hinduism because it didn't acknowledge the caste system or divinity of the Hindu scriptures.
Jainism's central belief not to harm any living beings is so strict it denies farming as a valid occupation.
Jains became good commerce and finance occupations.
Scriptures
There are many Jain writings. The most popular collection of Scriptures is the Agam Sutras, but they are not universally accepted.
Major Beliefs
Jainism's main focus is on liberation from the cycle of reincarnation.
Jainism teaches the law of karma.
Jainism teaches that each being has its own soul and its own divinity. The soul is called a jiva and it is trapped in a cycle of births and rebirths. The goal of each jiva is to rise to the top of the universe to enjoy peace. Ajiva (or dead matter) clings to the soul and keeps it trapped in its current bondage. Ajiva is depicted as granules that weigh the soul down and the more bad karma one accrues, the more ajiva sets piled on one's jiva.
The point of Jainism is to purify one's soul of all ajiva in order to enter the permanent state of bliss. Removing bad karma from one's soul is something all persons need to do for themselves.
The gods are ambivalent role in Jainism.
Jainism vigorously denies the existence of a creator or sustainer of the universe.
The Hindu gods are recognized in Jainism, but seen as being in need of salvation. The gods must be reborn in human form to receive salvation through personal enlightenment.
There are five vows one must take to achieve enlightenment.
1) Ahisma - never harming many living thing. Eating can be given up to remove all karma.
2) Always tell the truth. One must qualify all of one's speech so that no one can mishear them.
3) Never steal property
4) Avoid all sexual contact
5) Do not get attached to anything material. One must limit one's sensory input as much as possible.
Mahavira showed the way to enlightenment. He was a jina (a conqueror) and a Tirthankara (a ford finder). Mahavira was the last of the 24 Tirthankara.
Even though Tirthankaras are not gods in Jainism, they are worshipped as such in Jain temples.
Subgroups
There are two major subgroups and a number of small ones. The two major subgroups are:
1) Svetambara - "clad in white". The monks wear white.
2) Digambara - "clad in atmosphere". The monks wear only air.
Digambara Jainists believe that one cannot attain enlightenment while wearing clothes and that women cannot go naked. Thus, they believe that women cannot be enlightened.
The Svetambara believe that women can attain enlightenment and that one of the Tirthankaras was a woman named Subidhi.
Worship practices
One attaining enlightenment through strictly observing precepts.
In the Jain temples people focus on the teachings of the Tirthankaras and venerate their statues.
They meditate in the temples.
Religious Buildings
Jain temples are usually highly ornate and white on the outside.
Inside a temple there are decorations to aid meditation.
There are statues of the Tirthankaras in an isolated room. Worshippers must wear cloths on their face to not contaminate the purity of the air with their breath.
Home Practices
Jains believe that only monks can remove all karma to attain enlightenment.
The laity of Jainism work to remove as much karma as possible to have a favorable reincarnation.
Clothing
Laypersons must dress modestly. Monks split over wearing white robes and going nude.
Diet
Laypersons eat a strict vegetarian diet. This is still a compromise because plants are living creatures and they believe that they are incurring karma every time they eat.
Monks only eat what was going to be thrown away.
Calendar
Jains follow a lunar calendar that keeps step with the solar year.
All groups celebrate the birthday of Mahavira, which roughly falls into April.
The other main holiday is a 10-day fast used as a time of reflection and prayer.
The Svetambras call this Paryusham and hold it in August. The Digambaras observe their fast as the Das Lakshon in September.
Jainism is a culture based on rigorous ethical principles, paying a high respect for truth.
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter Nine: Jainism
Name
Jainism is derived from the Sanskrit word jina. Tina means "conquerer". A Jain is a "follower of the conquerer". The conquerer refers to the founder of the religion, Mahavira.
To the outsider, Jainism appears similar to Hinduism.
Numbers and Distribution
There are 4 million Jains in the world today.
The vast majority live in India, but Kenya has a number of Jains because of Indian immigration.
There is an active Jain temple in Chicago.
Symbols
Jainism has many symbols but for a millennia it had no universal symbol.
In 1975, a global convention of Jains met to observe the 2500th anniversary of Mahavira's death and devised a single symbol. It combined five elements:
1. The outside is a person's torso, the shape Jains imagine the universe exists in.
2) The arc represents the head of the human shape, the dot represents those who have attained liberation.
3) The three dots stand for the three Jain principles: faith, right knowledge and right conduct
4) The swastika has many meanings: entanglement in the cycle of reincarnations, the four kinds of beings in need of salvation: gods, humans, animals and demons
5) the hand indicates a blessing and a warning. Inside the hand is a wheel with 24 spokes. Each spoke represents an ancient teacher (the Tirthankaras). Inside the wheel is the inscription "ahimsa" which means non-violence. Non-violence is the most basic principle of Jainism
History
Jainism was founded by Mahavira, who lived in the 6th century BC. He was the son of making who renounced his wealth and leisure to find enlightenment. He then lived a life of extreme self-mortification, punishing his body to liberate his soul. At the brink of death he experienced a flash of enlightenment.
Unlike the Buddha, Mahavira di not cease to live an ascetic life. He recruited others to emulate his lifestyle.
Jainism split from Hinduism because it didn't acknowledge the caste system or divinity of the Hindu scriptures.
Jainism's central belief not to harm any living beings is so strict it denies farming as a valid occupation.
Jains became good commerce and finance occupations.
Scriptures
There are many Jain writings. The most popular collection of Scriptures is the Agam Sutras, but they are not universally accepted.
Major Beliefs
Jainism's main focus is on liberation from the cycle of reincarnation.
Jainism teaches the law of karma.
Jainism teaches that each being has its own soul and its own divinity. The soul is called a jiva and it is trapped in a cycle of births and rebirths. The goal of each jiva is to rise to the top of the universe to enjoy peace. Ajiva (or dead matter) clings to the soul and keeps it trapped in its current bondage. Ajiva is depicted as granules that weigh the soul down and the more bad karma one accrues, the more ajiva sets piled on one's jiva.
The point of Jainism is to purify one's soul of all ajiva in order to enter the permanent state of bliss. Removing bad karma from one's soul is something all persons need to do for themselves.
The gods are ambivalent role in Jainism.
Jainism vigorously denies the existence of a creator or sustainer of the universe.
The Hindu gods are recognized in Jainism, but seen as being in need of salvation. The gods must be reborn in human form to receive salvation through personal enlightenment.
There are five vows one must take to achieve enlightenment.
1) Ahisma - never harming many living thing. Eating can be given up to remove all karma.
2) Always tell the truth. One must qualify all of one's speech so that no one can mishear them.
3) Never steal property
4) Avoid all sexual contact
5) Do not get attached to anything material. One must limit one's sensory input as much as possible.
Mahavira showed the way to enlightenment. He was a jina (a conqueror) and a Tirthankara (a ford finder). Mahavira was the last of the 24 Tirthankara.
Even though Tirthankaras are not gods in Jainism, they are worshipped as such in Jain temples.
Subgroups
There are two major subgroups and a number of small ones. The two major subgroups are:
1) Svetambara - "clad in white". The monks wear white.
2) Digambara - "clad in atmosphere". The monks wear only air.
Digambara Jainists believe that one cannot attain enlightenment while wearing clothes and that women cannot go naked. Thus, they believe that women cannot be enlightened.
The Svetambara believe that women can attain enlightenment and that one of the Tirthankaras was a woman named Subidhi.
Worship practices
One attaining enlightenment through strictly observing precepts.
In the Jain temples people focus on the teachings of the Tirthankaras and venerate their statues.
They meditate in the temples.
Religious Buildings
Jain temples are usually highly ornate and white on the outside.
Inside a temple there are decorations to aid meditation.
There are statues of the Tirthankaras in an isolated room. Worshippers must wear cloths on their face to not contaminate the purity of the air with their breath.
Home Practices
Jains believe that only monks can remove all karma to attain enlightenment.
The laity of Jainism work to remove as much karma as possible to have a favorable reincarnation.
Clothing
Laypersons must dress modestly. Monks split over wearing white robes and going nude.
Diet
Laypersons eat a strict vegetarian diet. This is still a compromise because plants are living creatures and they believe that they are incurring karma every time they eat.
Monks only eat what was going to be thrown away.
Calendar
Jains follow a lunar calendar that keeps step with the solar year.
All groups celebrate the birthday of Mahavira, which roughly falls into April.
The other main holiday is a 10-day fast used as a time of reflection and prayer.
The Svetambras call this Paryusham and hold it in August. The Digambaras observe their fast as the Das Lakshon in September.
Jainism is a culture based on rigorous ethical principles, paying a high respect for truth.
Chapter 7 - Pocket Guide to World Religions
(Originally written February 18, 2007 in Book 14)
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 7 - Hinduism
Name
Hinduism is a Western created word to encompass the religious and social system of India.
Hindus refer to their religion as the dharma, which means "the way" or "the religion".
Numbers and Distribution
There are approximately 900 million Hindus worldwide.
The largest numbers of Hindus live in India, including the 300 million "untouchables" who are considered Hindus, but cannot fully participate in the religion.
Symbols
Symbols play an important role in Hinduism.
The most universal symbol is the Om. Om is a sound that has no literal meaning but that is supposed represent the totality of the spiritual universe.
The swastika is also a prevalent symbol in Hinduism, but is not displayed in the West. It represents prosperity and good fortune in Hinduism.
History
Hinduism began as the religion of a group of people migrations to the Indian subcontinent from central Asia. These people are called the Aryans (not to be confused with the racist ideology of Hitler's race). The Aryans migrated around 1500 BC. They worshiped a few gods with animal sacrifice.
The priests of the Aryans were called Brahmins. The Brahmins recorded prayers and sacrificial formulas in books called Vedas. The Brahmins introduced new rules and regulations, altering Hinduism dramatically.
The Caste system developed and the belief in reincarnation became a vital part of Hinduism.
This early form of Hinduism is sometimes referred to as "the way of works" because of its emphasis on the Brahmin ritualistic and legalistic emphasis.
Around the 6th century BC the people reacted against the Brahmin legalism. Buddhism and Jainism emerged out of this reaction, and a new understanding of Hinduism emerged.
"The way of knowledge", the process of finding God within one's self replaced "the way of works". But, "The way of works" and "the way of knowledge" coexist and influence one another.
By the 8th century AD, "the way of devotion" had emerged. This interpretation of Hinduism focuses on one particular god or goddess.
Modern Hinduism blends all three ways but "the way of devotion" is the major influence.
1. Way of Works - based on sacrifices and rituals
2. Way of knowledge - based on finding God within one's self
3. Way of Devotion - based on a person's relationship with a particular deity.
1. Way of works is called Brahmanism or Vedic Hinduism
2. Way of knowledge is called Vedantic Hinduism
3. Way of Devotion is called Bhakti Hinduism
Scriptures
Hinduism has many writings that are organized into two main categories:
1. Shruti - writings "heard" from the gods by holy men (richis)
2. Smriti - writings handed down by tradition
The Smriti contain mostly stories, so average Hindus pay the most attention to them.
The Shruti contain thoughts and beliefs and are usually confined to priests and scholars.
Many Hindu scholars believe that the Scriptures were only written down a few centuries ago and that they were passed down orally for generations.
Shruti:
1) Vedas
2) Brahmanas
3) Sutras
4) Law of Manu
5) Upanishads
Smriti:
1) Mahabharata
2) Bhagavad Gita
3) Ramayana
4) Puranas
Major Beliefs
Hinduism has no mandatory set of beliefs but most agree on certain concepts.
What most Hindus agree on:
1. Life is hard and full of suffering
2. Reincarnation
3. What you come back as is based on what you have done in previous lives. (Law of Karma)
Hinduism, in all its forms, attempts to find a way out of the never-ending cycle of lives, deaths and rebirths.
What many Hindus agree on: ritual obligations
A large number of Hindus consider it important to maintain fundamental rules of life.
Hindu culture is woven into the fabric of Hindu society and Hindus cling to ritual obligations regardless of their religious convictions.
What many Hindus agree on: Vedantic Hinduism
The most important problem of all human beings is that they have forgotten they are living in an unreal world.
The is a true reality: the Brahman.
The Brahman is the spiritual being that is ultimately beyond understanding or description.
If we treat our experiences (maya) of the world as real, we will remain trapped in the cycle of reincarnation. If we realize that deep within ourselves there is a self (atman) that is identical with Brahman we are on the way to escaping the never-ending cycle of reincarnation.
What many Hindus agree on: Bhakti Hinduism
Some Hindus believe that all gods are manifestations of the Brahman, others believe that their specific god or goddess is the supreme being.
There're are 300 million gods in Hinduism, but not all gods are equal in importance.
The are 3 main gods (traditionally)
1) Brahma - creator of the universe
2) Vishnu - the preserver
3) Shiva - the destroyer of the world.
Each of these gods has a female counterpart, a shaky, who brings out his power
1) Brahma - Sarasvati, the goddess of learning
2) Vishnu - Lakshmi, the goddess of fortune
3) Shiva - Parvati, his devoted wife
- Durga, the goddess of death
- Kali, the destroyer of evil
Vishnu is extremely important because he occasionally incarnates himself to restore order. His most prominent incarnations (avatars) include Krishna and Rama.
Gods:
Deity/Function/Depiction
-Brahma, the creator, four heads
-Saraswati, Brahma's wife, goddess of learning, stringed instrument
-Vishnu, preserver, blue, conch shell, discuss, staff
-Lakshmi, Vishnu's wife, goddess of fortune, Blue conch shell
-Shiva, destroyer, trident, three horizontal stripes
-Paravati, Shiva's wife, depicted with Shiva
-Durga, goddess of death, eight or ten arms, long spear, riding a lion
-Kali, destroyer of demons, black grimaced face, skull necklace rides a tiger
-Rama, avatar of Vishnu, ideal king, Green with a large bow
-Krishna, Avatar of Vishnu, cowherd, Dark blue or black with a flute
-Ganesha, son of Shiva, remover of obstacles, Elephant head
-Hanuman, Grand vizier of the monkeys, green monkey, often with Rama
Subgroups
Subgroups can be distinguished by their devotion o a main god. There could be countless subgroups, but there are three main ones:
1) Vishnavites - Vishnu is head god
2) Shaivites - Shiva is head god
3) Shaktites - Kali or Durga is head god.
Some groups of Hinduism practice yoga to liberate one's spirit from their body.
Another way of grouping Hindus is the caste system. While the caste system is a social construct, it has a profound impact on religious life.
Brahmins - Priests
Kshatriyas - Warriors or rulers
Vaishyas - Merchants, landowners
Shudras - workers
Dalits - outcasts
Worship Practices
Worship is performed before statues of gods in the home and temple.
Hindus believe that the god/goddess live in the statue as long as the statue is properly cared for.
The worship is called puja. Puja can be simple at home and last for only a few minutes. It can also be very ornate in temple settings.
Religious buildings
A Hindu temple is often highly decorated and dedicated to a specific deity.
Temples normally have a statue of the main god in the most prominent palace, and a statue of Ganesha to the right of it.
Home Practices
Traditionally, a Hindu house hold has a statue of a god that must be worshipped daily.
Women have a special duty to make pilgrimages for their family.
Women also decorate the front door with Kola diagrams. Kola diagrams are designed made of colored rice to be eaten by ants as an offering to gods and spirits.
Clothing
Little of traditional Indian dress is considered intrinsically religious.
Masks on the face or forehead can be very significant.
Devotees of particular deities will rub ash on their face after worship. Shaivites mark their forehead with three horizontal stripes. Vaishnavites make two vertical lines that converge on the bridge of the nose.
The red spot on the forehead of women is called the bindi. Bindi means "little drop". The Bindi lets the world know that the wearer is a Hindu and a married woman.
Some unmarried girls have a spot on their forehead to protect against the "evil eye".
Diet
Hindus do not eat beef because the cow is considered sacred.
Many Hindus are vegetarians, but not all.
Calendar
Hindus follow a lunar calendar.
Festivals are put on the full full moon, 10 fall in the middle of the moth.
Because of sectarian and regional differences the same festival is celebrated to different gods on a regular basis.
Some important celebrations:
1. Diwali (late October/Early November)
- most important and most widespread of all Hindu holidays
- honors a godess, usually Lakshmi
- sometimes considered New Year's Day
2. Pangal (January)
- primarily a South Indian celebration
- Some times considered a New Year's
- festival of fertility, not devoted to a specific god
- women make kola diagrams, men fly kites
- cows are adorned with garland
3. Taipusam (late January, early February)
- entirely a South Indian holiday
- dedicated to Muruka, the son of Shiva
- devotion expressed through acts of austerity and self-immolation
4. Holi (late February, early March)
- honors Krishna
- honors his pranks played as a youth
- 5 days of high spirits
- on the 5th day people throw buckets of colored water on one another
Every deity has his or her own birthday or day of descent.
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 7 - Hinduism
Name
Hinduism is a Western created word to encompass the religious and social system of India.
Hindus refer to their religion as the dharma, which means "the way" or "the religion".
Numbers and Distribution
There are approximately 900 million Hindus worldwide.
The largest numbers of Hindus live in India, including the 300 million "untouchables" who are considered Hindus, but cannot fully participate in the religion.
Symbols
Symbols play an important role in Hinduism.
The most universal symbol is the Om. Om is a sound that has no literal meaning but that is supposed represent the totality of the spiritual universe.
The swastika is also a prevalent symbol in Hinduism, but is not displayed in the West. It represents prosperity and good fortune in Hinduism.
History
Hinduism began as the religion of a group of people migrations to the Indian subcontinent from central Asia. These people are called the Aryans (not to be confused with the racist ideology of Hitler's race). The Aryans migrated around 1500 BC. They worshiped a few gods with animal sacrifice.
The priests of the Aryans were called Brahmins. The Brahmins recorded prayers and sacrificial formulas in books called Vedas. The Brahmins introduced new rules and regulations, altering Hinduism dramatically.
The Caste system developed and the belief in reincarnation became a vital part of Hinduism.
This early form of Hinduism is sometimes referred to as "the way of works" because of its emphasis on the Brahmin ritualistic and legalistic emphasis.
Around the 6th century BC the people reacted against the Brahmin legalism. Buddhism and Jainism emerged out of this reaction, and a new understanding of Hinduism emerged.
"The way of knowledge", the process of finding God within one's self replaced "the way of works". But, "The way of works" and "the way of knowledge" coexist and influence one another.
By the 8th century AD, "the way of devotion" had emerged. This interpretation of Hinduism focuses on one particular god or goddess.
Modern Hinduism blends all three ways but "the way of devotion" is the major influence.
1. Way of Works - based on sacrifices and rituals
2. Way of knowledge - based on finding God within one's self
3. Way of Devotion - based on a person's relationship with a particular deity.
1. Way of works is called Brahmanism or Vedic Hinduism
2. Way of knowledge is called Vedantic Hinduism
3. Way of Devotion is called Bhakti Hinduism
Scriptures
Hinduism has many writings that are organized into two main categories:
1. Shruti - writings "heard" from the gods by holy men (richis)
2. Smriti - writings handed down by tradition
The Smriti contain mostly stories, so average Hindus pay the most attention to them.
The Shruti contain thoughts and beliefs and are usually confined to priests and scholars.
Many Hindu scholars believe that the Scriptures were only written down a few centuries ago and that they were passed down orally for generations.
Shruti:
1) Vedas
2) Brahmanas
3) Sutras
4) Law of Manu
5) Upanishads
Smriti:
1) Mahabharata
2) Bhagavad Gita
3) Ramayana
4) Puranas
Major Beliefs
Hinduism has no mandatory set of beliefs but most agree on certain concepts.
What most Hindus agree on:
1. Life is hard and full of suffering
2. Reincarnation
3. What you come back as is based on what you have done in previous lives. (Law of Karma)
Hinduism, in all its forms, attempts to find a way out of the never-ending cycle of lives, deaths and rebirths.
What many Hindus agree on: ritual obligations
A large number of Hindus consider it important to maintain fundamental rules of life.
Hindu culture is woven into the fabric of Hindu society and Hindus cling to ritual obligations regardless of their religious convictions.
What many Hindus agree on: Vedantic Hinduism
The most important problem of all human beings is that they have forgotten they are living in an unreal world.
The is a true reality: the Brahman.
The Brahman is the spiritual being that is ultimately beyond understanding or description.
If we treat our experiences (maya) of the world as real, we will remain trapped in the cycle of reincarnation. If we realize that deep within ourselves there is a self (atman) that is identical with Brahman we are on the way to escaping the never-ending cycle of reincarnation.
What many Hindus agree on: Bhakti Hinduism
Some Hindus believe that all gods are manifestations of the Brahman, others believe that their specific god or goddess is the supreme being.
There're are 300 million gods in Hinduism, but not all gods are equal in importance.
The are 3 main gods (traditionally)
1) Brahma - creator of the universe
2) Vishnu - the preserver
3) Shiva - the destroyer of the world.
Each of these gods has a female counterpart, a shaky, who brings out his power
1) Brahma - Sarasvati, the goddess of learning
2) Vishnu - Lakshmi, the goddess of fortune
3) Shiva - Parvati, his devoted wife
- Durga, the goddess of death
- Kali, the destroyer of evil
Vishnu is extremely important because he occasionally incarnates himself to restore order. His most prominent incarnations (avatars) include Krishna and Rama.
Gods:
Deity/Function/Depiction
-Brahma, the creator, four heads
-Saraswati, Brahma's wife, goddess of learning, stringed instrument
-Vishnu, preserver, blue, conch shell, discuss, staff
-Lakshmi, Vishnu's wife, goddess of fortune, Blue conch shell
-Shiva, destroyer, trident, three horizontal stripes
-Paravati, Shiva's wife, depicted with Shiva
-Durga, goddess of death, eight or ten arms, long spear, riding a lion
-Kali, destroyer of demons, black grimaced face, skull necklace rides a tiger
-Rama, avatar of Vishnu, ideal king, Green with a large bow
-Krishna, Avatar of Vishnu, cowherd, Dark blue or black with a flute
-Ganesha, son of Shiva, remover of obstacles, Elephant head
-Hanuman, Grand vizier of the monkeys, green monkey, often with Rama
Subgroups
Subgroups can be distinguished by their devotion o a main god. There could be countless subgroups, but there are three main ones:
1) Vishnavites - Vishnu is head god
2) Shaivites - Shiva is head god
3) Shaktites - Kali or Durga is head god.
Some groups of Hinduism practice yoga to liberate one's spirit from their body.
Another way of grouping Hindus is the caste system. While the caste system is a social construct, it has a profound impact on religious life.
Brahmins - Priests
Kshatriyas - Warriors or rulers
Vaishyas - Merchants, landowners
Shudras - workers
Dalits - outcasts
Worship Practices
Worship is performed before statues of gods in the home and temple.
Hindus believe that the god/goddess live in the statue as long as the statue is properly cared for.
The worship is called puja. Puja can be simple at home and last for only a few minutes. It can also be very ornate in temple settings.
Religious buildings
A Hindu temple is often highly decorated and dedicated to a specific deity.
Temples normally have a statue of the main god in the most prominent palace, and a statue of Ganesha to the right of it.
Home Practices
Traditionally, a Hindu house hold has a statue of a god that must be worshipped daily.
Women have a special duty to make pilgrimages for their family.
Women also decorate the front door with Kola diagrams. Kola diagrams are designed made of colored rice to be eaten by ants as an offering to gods and spirits.
Clothing
Little of traditional Indian dress is considered intrinsically religious.
Masks on the face or forehead can be very significant.
Devotees of particular deities will rub ash on their face after worship. Shaivites mark their forehead with three horizontal stripes. Vaishnavites make two vertical lines that converge on the bridge of the nose.
The red spot on the forehead of women is called the bindi. Bindi means "little drop". The Bindi lets the world know that the wearer is a Hindu and a married woman.
Some unmarried girls have a spot on their forehead to protect against the "evil eye".
Diet
Hindus do not eat beef because the cow is considered sacred.
Many Hindus are vegetarians, but not all.
Calendar
Hindus follow a lunar calendar.
Festivals are put on the full full moon, 10 fall in the middle of the moth.
Because of sectarian and regional differences the same festival is celebrated to different gods on a regular basis.
Some important celebrations:
1. Diwali (late October/Early November)
- most important and most widespread of all Hindu holidays
- honors a godess, usually Lakshmi
- sometimes considered New Year's Day
2. Pangal (January)
- primarily a South Indian celebration
- Some times considered a New Year's
- festival of fertility, not devoted to a specific god
- women make kola diagrams, men fly kites
- cows are adorned with garland
3. Taipusam (late January, early February)
- entirely a South Indian holiday
- dedicated to Muruka, the son of Shiva
- devotion expressed through acts of austerity and self-immolation
4. Holi (late February, early March)
- honors Krishna
- honors his pranks played as a youth
- 5 days of high spirits
- on the 5th day people throw buckets of colored water on one another
Every deity has his or her own birthday or day of descent.
Thursday, February 15, 2007
Chapter 3 - Pocket Guide to World Religions
(Originally written February 15, 2007 in Book 14)
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 3 - Buddhism
Name
Buddhism comes from the teachings of Buddha.
Buddha means "Enlightened One".
Buddhism has many different branches.
Numbers and Distribution
Buddhism is the fourth largest religion with 360 million practitioners.
Buddhism is an Asian religion. It originated in India.
Buddhism is practiced in its most traditional forms in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Tibet, Korea, China and Japan have different forms of Buddhism.
Buddhism is often adapted and adopted by Westerners, but this adaptation is not as traditional.
Symbols
Buddhism has many subgroups and thus, many symbols.
One symbol pervades all of Buddhism, the wheel with eight spokes.
This symbol has many levels of meaning:
1) The eightfold path
2) No matter how far one is, one is always a distance from the middle (which is nirvana)
The swastika is also an important symbol to Buddhism. Because of the swastika's negative implications, Asian religions shy away from its usage in the West. It is a symbol of spiritual truth and good fortune. The swastika brings together the four noble truths, the eight fold path and the convergence of all at the center.
History
The Buddha
The story of Buddhism begins as a fairy tale: Siddhartha Gautama was born in the 6th century BC. It was prophesied that he would become a great king or a great monk. His father, the king, kept him inside the palace and raised him to be a great king.
Siddhartha, being curious about the outside world requested to see it. His father arranged the route so he would not see monks, funerals or sick people. But the gods positioned four visions along the way:
1) An old person - so that Siddhartha could learn that every person will eventually fade
2) A gravely ill person - so that Siddhartha could understand the fragility of life
3) A funeral procession - so that he could see that all life must come to an end
4) A monk in meditation - so that he could see the solution to all these problems
Siddhartha became obsessed with these visions and kissed his wife goodbye while she was sleeping and said goodbye to his infant son and rode off into the world. He then lived as an impoverished monk. After seven years of torturing himself he sat down with a bowl of rice. He then became the buddha and realized the path to enlightenment was neither in self-indulgence nor self-denial, but the middle path.
To become a buddhist while Siddhartha was still alive meant to become a monk.
Later Developments
After his death, the religion continued to spread, but underwent some major transformations.
Enlightenment was reserved for monks, a few centuries after his death though, enlightenment was opened to all.
Scriptures
Several hundred years after the Buddha's death, his disciples compiled all his teachings in to one vast collection: Tripitaka (or the "Three Baskets").
The Content of Tripitaka includes:
1) Ethical exhortations
2) Philosophical discussions
3) Stories from the Buddha's past lives
Other writings called sutras were composed laster to further shed light on the Buddha's teachings.
Major Beliefs
Buddhism shares a number of fundamental assumptions with other Indian religions, but gives the interpretive twists.
Buddhism teaches that each human being is caught in a potentially never-ending cycle of reincarnations. The goal of Buddhism is for each human to escape this cycle.
Buddhism teaches that the way to escape from the cycle is to reorganize that the cycle is not real.
There are four noble truths in Buddhism:
1) To live is to suffer
2) Suffering is caused by attachment to this life
3) The way to end suffering is by ending attachment to this life
4) We can end attachment to this life by following the noble eight-fold path
Traditional Buddhism teaches that a monk who observes all the principles and archives enlightenment will enter the state of nirvana upon death.
Nirvana literally means "blowing out" or "extinction".
Noble Eightfold Path
- Right Concentration
- Right Belief
- Right Intention
- Right Speech
- Right Action
- Right Livelihood
- Right Effort
- Right Meditation
Subgroups
There are numerous subgroups, known as Schools
Major Division: Theravada and Mahayana
This split took place within a few centuries of Buddhism
Theravada - literally means "the tradition of the elders"
Mahayana - literally means "the big raft"
The Theravada claimed the original monk-oriented Buddhism was the true Buddhism; whereas, the Mahayana took a more inclusive view of this religion.
The Mahayana belittles the Theravada by calling it the Hinayana ("Little Vehicle")
Theravada Regions
Theravada is practiced in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Cambodia. "Sri Lanka became the main home of Buddhism when it waned in India" (Corduan, 31).
Buddhism is focused on monks who are capable of enlightenment in Sri Lanka. Lay persons are obliged to support the monks. Lay persons work toward a better reincarnation while monks work toward Nirvana.
The Laypersons and monks are governed by the ten precepts:
The Monks & Laity:
1. Do not harm any living being
2. Do not lie
3. Do not steal
4. Do not engage in sexual immorality (celibacy for monks)
5. Do not consume intoxicating beverages
Monks & Laity on Special Days:
6. Do not eat in excess after noon
7. Do not attend entertainments
8. Do not sleep on wide or high beds
Monks Only:
9. Do not sleep on wide or high beds
10. Do not touch gold or silver.
In Thailand, Theravada Buddhism has a number of enrichment:
1) The Hindu gods receive special attention because they helped Buddha choose the religious life.
2) The god Brahma is paid special attention for encouraging Buddha to preach
3) The king of Thailand is the incarnation of the god Rama
Mahayana Schools
1. Tibetan Buddhism
- The Dalai Lama
- The Tibetan Buddhism is the most complicated form because it is tied to the ancient spirit-oriented religion of the Tibetan Plateau.
- Tibetan Buddhism's end is still to realize enlightenment and enter Nirvana
- Tibetan Buddhism focuses on monks called lamas
- The Dalai Lama is the highest Lama. When the Dalai Lama died he is reincarnated as an infant and officials search for the child who is supposed to bear certain distinguishing marks
2. Pure Land Buddhism
- Popular in Japan
- Focused on worshiping a different Buddha (there are many Buddhas and those about to become Buddhas are called Bodhisattvas called Amida
- Amida has an all-consuming person for human beings, especially common people
- Amida created a a paradise for those commoners who could not achieve nirvana. He created "the pure land".
- Those who accept the gift from Amida will be reborn in to this "pure land" and have a better shot at nirvana
- Pure land Buddhism celebrates the grave of Amida Buddha
3. Zen
- Zen is well-known in the west, but in a diluted and caricatured form
- Zen construes enlightenment as something that occurs beyond rational understanding
- Zen practitioners attempt to discover enlightenment by puzzling over conundrums (Koans) or intense meditation (Zezen)
- "The moment of enlightenment is not so much a higher level of spiritual existence as the acceptance of one's life exactly as it is, without further explanation" (Corduan, 34).
- Zen is often linked to martial arts like Kung Fu, but many schools of Zen have nothing to do with martial arts
Worship Practices
Worship practices vary from sect to sect.
Many Buddhists claim they do not worship the Buddha as a god but their veneration of him is comparable to that of a god.
Meditation and chanting are the most universal worship practices of all subsets of Buddhism.
Religious Buildings
Buddhist temples look very different from one another.
Theravada Temples have a statue of the seated Buddha with an altar and another statue of the lying down Buddha to depict his entrance into nirvana.
Buddhist temples are often adapted to their particular sect's function.
Thai temples tend to be highly decorative.
The Amida Buddha is standing on a lotus blossom.
The hand positions of a Buddha are important.
- Left had rising on thigh, right had pointing downward - the assertion of Buddha-hood.
- Right hand upward with a palm facing the viewers - the blessing the people with his presence
- Right hand upward with thumb and forefinger closed - teaching the way to salvation
Home Practices
Buddhist homes often contain a statue of Buddha.
Most Buddhist culture put high value on ancestor veneration, so homes often have ancestor shrines.
Clothing
- Nothing for the laity.
- Traditional schools have monks keep their heads shaved and wear saffron robes.
- Tibetan Buddhism has various orders of monks who wear different colored robes
Diet
Monks are vegetarians; so many laypersons are as well.
Some Buddhist monks abstain from garlic and onions because they are viewed as aphrodisiacs in South Asian culture
Calendar
Different regions incorporate holidays unique to their subset.
Some holidays are universal, but celebrated on different days.
Japan uses the Western calendar, but other countries operate on a lunar one.
Major Universal Holidays
-Buddha's Birthday (Vesak)
Buddha's Enlightenment
Buddha's Death
Ancestor Veneration Festival
"Buddhism is a religion that combines moral earnestness with deep philosophical speculation" (Corduan, 37).
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 3 - Buddhism
Name
Buddhism comes from the teachings of Buddha.
Buddha means "Enlightened One".
Buddhism has many different branches.
Numbers and Distribution
Buddhism is the fourth largest religion with 360 million practitioners.
Buddhism is an Asian religion. It originated in India.
Buddhism is practiced in its most traditional forms in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Tibet, Korea, China and Japan have different forms of Buddhism.
Buddhism is often adapted and adopted by Westerners, but this adaptation is not as traditional.
Symbols
Buddhism has many subgroups and thus, many symbols.
One symbol pervades all of Buddhism, the wheel with eight spokes.
This symbol has many levels of meaning:
1) The eightfold path
2) No matter how far one is, one is always a distance from the middle (which is nirvana)
The swastika is also an important symbol to Buddhism. Because of the swastika's negative implications, Asian religions shy away from its usage in the West. It is a symbol of spiritual truth and good fortune. The swastika brings together the four noble truths, the eight fold path and the convergence of all at the center.
History
The Buddha
The story of Buddhism begins as a fairy tale: Siddhartha Gautama was born in the 6th century BC. It was prophesied that he would become a great king or a great monk. His father, the king, kept him inside the palace and raised him to be a great king.
Siddhartha, being curious about the outside world requested to see it. His father arranged the route so he would not see monks, funerals or sick people. But the gods positioned four visions along the way:
1) An old person - so that Siddhartha could learn that every person will eventually fade
2) A gravely ill person - so that Siddhartha could understand the fragility of life
3) A funeral procession - so that he could see that all life must come to an end
4) A monk in meditation - so that he could see the solution to all these problems
Siddhartha became obsessed with these visions and kissed his wife goodbye while she was sleeping and said goodbye to his infant son and rode off into the world. He then lived as an impoverished monk. After seven years of torturing himself he sat down with a bowl of rice. He then became the buddha and realized the path to enlightenment was neither in self-indulgence nor self-denial, but the middle path.
To become a buddhist while Siddhartha was still alive meant to become a monk.
Later Developments
After his death, the religion continued to spread, but underwent some major transformations.
Enlightenment was reserved for monks, a few centuries after his death though, enlightenment was opened to all.
Scriptures
Several hundred years after the Buddha's death, his disciples compiled all his teachings in to one vast collection: Tripitaka (or the "Three Baskets").
The Content of Tripitaka includes:
1) Ethical exhortations
2) Philosophical discussions
3) Stories from the Buddha's past lives
Other writings called sutras were composed laster to further shed light on the Buddha's teachings.
Major Beliefs
Buddhism shares a number of fundamental assumptions with other Indian religions, but gives the interpretive twists.
Buddhism teaches that each human being is caught in a potentially never-ending cycle of reincarnations. The goal of Buddhism is for each human to escape this cycle.
Buddhism teaches that the way to escape from the cycle is to reorganize that the cycle is not real.
There are four noble truths in Buddhism:
1) To live is to suffer
2) Suffering is caused by attachment to this life
3) The way to end suffering is by ending attachment to this life
4) We can end attachment to this life by following the noble eight-fold path
Traditional Buddhism teaches that a monk who observes all the principles and archives enlightenment will enter the state of nirvana upon death.
Nirvana literally means "blowing out" or "extinction".
Noble Eightfold Path
- Right Concentration
- Right Belief
- Right Intention
- Right Speech
- Right Action
- Right Livelihood
- Right Effort
- Right Meditation
Subgroups
There are numerous subgroups, known as Schools
Major Division: Theravada and Mahayana
This split took place within a few centuries of Buddhism
Theravada - literally means "the tradition of the elders"
Mahayana - literally means "the big raft"
The Theravada claimed the original monk-oriented Buddhism was the true Buddhism; whereas, the Mahayana took a more inclusive view of this religion.
The Mahayana belittles the Theravada by calling it the Hinayana ("Little Vehicle")
Theravada Regions
Theravada is practiced in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Cambodia. "Sri Lanka became the main home of Buddhism when it waned in India" (Corduan, 31).
Buddhism is focused on monks who are capable of enlightenment in Sri Lanka. Lay persons are obliged to support the monks. Lay persons work toward a better reincarnation while monks work toward Nirvana.
The Laypersons and monks are governed by the ten precepts:
The Monks & Laity:
1. Do not harm any living being
2. Do not lie
3. Do not steal
4. Do not engage in sexual immorality (celibacy for monks)
5. Do not consume intoxicating beverages
Monks & Laity on Special Days:
6. Do not eat in excess after noon
7. Do not attend entertainments
8. Do not sleep on wide or high beds
Monks Only:
9. Do not sleep on wide or high beds
10. Do not touch gold or silver.
In Thailand, Theravada Buddhism has a number of enrichment:
1) The Hindu gods receive special attention because they helped Buddha choose the religious life.
2) The god Brahma is paid special attention for encouraging Buddha to preach
3) The king of Thailand is the incarnation of the god Rama
Mahayana Schools
1. Tibetan Buddhism
- The Dalai Lama
- The Tibetan Buddhism is the most complicated form because it is tied to the ancient spirit-oriented religion of the Tibetan Plateau.
- Tibetan Buddhism's end is still to realize enlightenment and enter Nirvana
- Tibetan Buddhism focuses on monks called lamas
- The Dalai Lama is the highest Lama. When the Dalai Lama died he is reincarnated as an infant and officials search for the child who is supposed to bear certain distinguishing marks
2. Pure Land Buddhism
- Popular in Japan
- Focused on worshiping a different Buddha (there are many Buddhas and those about to become Buddhas are called Bodhisattvas called Amida
- Amida has an all-consuming person for human beings, especially common people
- Amida created a a paradise for those commoners who could not achieve nirvana. He created "the pure land".
- Those who accept the gift from Amida will be reborn in to this "pure land" and have a better shot at nirvana
- Pure land Buddhism celebrates the grave of Amida Buddha
3. Zen
- Zen is well-known in the west, but in a diluted and caricatured form
- Zen construes enlightenment as something that occurs beyond rational understanding
- Zen practitioners attempt to discover enlightenment by puzzling over conundrums (Koans) or intense meditation (Zezen)
- "The moment of enlightenment is not so much a higher level of spiritual existence as the acceptance of one's life exactly as it is, without further explanation" (Corduan, 34).
- Zen is often linked to martial arts like Kung Fu, but many schools of Zen have nothing to do with martial arts
Worship Practices
Worship practices vary from sect to sect.
Many Buddhists claim they do not worship the Buddha as a god but their veneration of him is comparable to that of a god.
Meditation and chanting are the most universal worship practices of all subsets of Buddhism.
Religious Buildings
Buddhist temples look very different from one another.
Theravada Temples have a statue of the seated Buddha with an altar and another statue of the lying down Buddha to depict his entrance into nirvana.
Buddhist temples are often adapted to their particular sect's function.
Thai temples tend to be highly decorative.
The Amida Buddha is standing on a lotus blossom.
The hand positions of a Buddha are important.
- Left had rising on thigh, right had pointing downward - the assertion of Buddha-hood.
- Right hand upward with a palm facing the viewers - the blessing the people with his presence
- Right hand upward with thumb and forefinger closed - teaching the way to salvation
Home Practices
Buddhist homes often contain a statue of Buddha.
Most Buddhist culture put high value on ancestor veneration, so homes often have ancestor shrines.
Clothing
- Nothing for the laity.
- Traditional schools have monks keep their heads shaved and wear saffron robes.
- Tibetan Buddhism has various orders of monks who wear different colored robes
Diet
Monks are vegetarians; so many laypersons are as well.
Some Buddhist monks abstain from garlic and onions because they are viewed as aphrodisiacs in South Asian culture
Calendar
Different regions incorporate holidays unique to their subset.
Some holidays are universal, but celebrated on different days.
Japan uses the Western calendar, but other countries operate on a lunar one.
Major Universal Holidays
-Buddha's Birthday (Vesak)
Buddha's Enlightenment
Buddha's Death
Ancestor Veneration Festival
"Buddhism is a religion that combines moral earnestness with deep philosophical speculation" (Corduan, 37).
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