The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Ch. II Christianity During the First Four Centuries
Christianity began as a reforming movement in Judaism and would have stayed such contentedly had it not been for St. Paul. St. Paul was able to keep what was good about the certainty of Judaism in an uncertain age without forcing the gentiles to take on the two most restrictive elements, dietary laws and circumcision.
Early Gnosticism taught that the Jews were bad and identified Yahweh with the god, Ialdabaoth. Ialdabaoth was a rebellious son of God and responsible for the evil, physical world. God then sent his spirit temporarily into Jesus to free the world from the false teachings of Moses. It was a fusion of Jewish theology and Platonic philosophy.
Manichean theology combined Christian and Zoroastrian elements and was what initially brought Augustine to the Catholic faith.
Early heresies like the Gnostics and Manicheans existed until Christianity took over the government. But some of their beliefs survived. Islam was founded with a Docetic (gnostic) belief that Jesus was a prophet who had the spirit of God in him until the spirit left him at the crucifixion.
As Christianity became Hellenized, it became theological. Even by the appearance of the Gospel of John, with Christ being identified with Logos, the Hellenization had begun.
Judaism did not have deep metaphysical mysteries. Christianity developed them in a Jewish context.
Origen, a contemporary of Plotinus, incorporated a lot of Neo-Platonism into his doctrine. In spite of being considered one of the Fathers of Christianity he was condemned for having believed four heresies:
1. The pre-existence of souls as Plato taught
2. Believed that the human nature of Christ existed before the Incarnation
3. At the resurrection our bodies will be transformed into completely ethereal bodies
4. That all men, even devils, shall be saved at least
Origen is the first to have the one-two punch for belief that is characteristic of Christian philosophy. First, pure reason, when exercised properly is sufficient to establish the basics of the Christian faith. Second, the Scriptures prove more and are proved by the fact that the prophets foretold of the Coming of the Messiah and that once believed the Christian life has tangible beneficent effects.
The Christians prior to Constantine had a high moral character. This high moral character is one of the reasons for the spread of Christianity.
The zeal which the Christians inherited from Judaism was vital to its spread. But, when the Christians acquired secular power they turned that zeal on one another to persecute heretics out of existence.
Two heresies, the Arian and the Sabellian forced the narrow line of the belief that the Father and the Son were one substance and distinct persons. Too much separation and you were advocating Arianism. Too much oneness and you were advocating Sabellianism.
The Arians were favored throughout much of the 4th century until Theodosius in 379 gave his full backing to the Catholic Christians with a cementing effect throughout the Empire. The Arians made a comeback in the West when the Vandals and the Goths, Arian Christians both of them, conquered much of the Western Empire. It took another century for the orthodoxy to prevail.
Showing posts with label Zoroastrianism. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Zoroastrianism. Show all posts
Wednesday, September 25, 2019
Monday, April 23, 2007
Eschatology in various religions
(Originally written April 23, 2007 in Book 15)
Chapter 7: Eschatology & Hope for the Future
Time plays crucial and different roles in various religions.
A Geometry of Time
The modern secular view of time is entirely linear. Time is a sequence of moments.
Most believe that time had some origin (whatever they claim it to be), but others like the physicist Stephen Hawkins deny that time has a beginning or an end.
Conversely, the Western monotheistic religions believe time has both a beginning and an end. In addition Judaism, Christianity, Islam and Zoroastrianism each have a mid point.
Pre-literate cultures believe that (according to Mircea Eliade) time was not linear, but circular. Time in our world mirrored the "time of the gods".
Eliade makes notice that as cultures move from preliterate to literate they drop the circular conception of, but not wholly. Anniversaries, holidays and birthdays are hold overs from circular time conceptions.
Eliade notes that archaic people (pre-Literates) have no hope or notion of the future. Likewise pure secularists have no hope for the future because they deny any telos (goal/end) for time.
Jainism's conception of time is divided into six ages and moves from best to worst then worst to best again.
Hinduism believes time is cyclical.
Buddhism also has a cyclical conception of time.
The Future in Traditional Religion
In African culture there are two modes of time:
1) Sasa - time of every day events
2) Zamani - Mythological time
People like in sass time. When they are born they are actualized into sass. When they die that actualization is completed and the process of de-actualization begins. As the ones who know them slowly die off the dead move further from the sasa into the zamani. Eventually they are engulfed in Zamani time.
Zamani gives purpose to sasa, but does not extend it.
The Christianization of Africa has taken two forms:
1) A traditional European style
2) A syncretism of traditional African religion and Christianity (independent churches).
The "independent churches" of Africa have adopted an eschatology, thus giving them hope for the future which traditional African conceptions of time denied them.
The Future in Western Religions
The future of Western Religions is tied into their messianic figures.
Judaism
Judaism had several messianic expectations by the time of Christ. Many the Messiah would liberate the Jews from Roman oppression and reestablish Israel.
The Essenes at Qumran expected at least two messiahs: a messianic king and a messianic priest.
The Saducees and the ruling priests might not have anticipated a messiah at all.
The messiah was expected to be human, but equal to God's first created being, the angel Metatron.
Also, the messiah would be the Son of David and heir to the throne.
The messiah would restore Israel politically and spiritually.
The messiah would liberate Jews from oppression.
Judaism has had a history of messianic pretenders. Bar Kokhba in the 2nd century and Sabbatai Zevi in the 17th century are the most notable two.
The Hasidic movement has shied away from claiming messianic status of their leaders and even opposed the creation of the modern state of Israel because they believed it was blasphemous to have Israel without a messianic king.
Reform Jews have given up the search for a Messiah.
Islam
Islam hopes for the Mahdi (the right guided one) as the last messenger of Allah.
The Mahdi is based on the Hadith, not the Qur'an.
The majority of Muslims are Sunni muslims and do not have a specific Mahdi theology.
The Shi'ite Muslims believe the Mahdi has a theological role.
Jesus Christ is the second most important prophet in Islam. Islam believes that Christ will return before the judgment and lead the faithful in prayer. But usually Jesus is not considered the Mahdi.
Shi'ite muslims claimed that the imams had the same spiritual authority as Muhammad. They have a super human standing.
The last imam to have this authority, according to the Shi'ites did not die, but went into hiding. He will return as the Mahdi.
Islam has had a number of Mahdi pretenders.
Umar II, one of the caliphs of the Umayyad dynasty was revered as the Mahdi for a while.
Mohammad Ahmad in the 19th century sought to overthrow the Ottoman Empire from Sudan. He claimed to be the Mahdi. His revolution was put down by the Turks, the British and a counter-Mahdi, Sanusi Al-Mahdi.
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian claimed to be the Mahdi, the second coming of Christ and an avatar of Krishna. There are two groups that follow his teaching still.
Baha'i began as an offshoot of Shi'ites.
The Bab claimed to be the Mahdi in 1844.
Baha'ullah declared himself to be the successor of the Bab and established Baha'i.
In the future another manifestation of God will follow if there needs to be one.
Zoroastrianism
Zoroaster is to be succeeded every 1,000 years by his direct descendants.
Three times, a thousand years apart, a virgin will bathe in the lake and become impersonated with his sperm.
Aushetar, Aushetar mah, and Saoshyant will be born as prophets like Zoroaster. Saoshyant will restore true religion and usher in the purification of all human beings.
Chapter 7: Eschatology & Hope for the Future
Time plays crucial and different roles in various religions.
A Geometry of Time
The modern secular view of time is entirely linear. Time is a sequence of moments.
Most believe that time had some origin (whatever they claim it to be), but others like the physicist Stephen Hawkins deny that time has a beginning or an end.
Conversely, the Western monotheistic religions believe time has both a beginning and an end. In addition Judaism, Christianity, Islam and Zoroastrianism each have a mid point.
Pre-literate cultures believe that (according to Mircea Eliade) time was not linear, but circular. Time in our world mirrored the "time of the gods".
Eliade makes notice that as cultures move from preliterate to literate they drop the circular conception of, but not wholly. Anniversaries, holidays and birthdays are hold overs from circular time conceptions.
Eliade notes that archaic people (pre-Literates) have no hope or notion of the future. Likewise pure secularists have no hope for the future because they deny any telos (goal/end) for time.
Jainism's conception of time is divided into six ages and moves from best to worst then worst to best again.
Hinduism believes time is cyclical.
Buddhism also has a cyclical conception of time.
The Future in Traditional Religion
In African culture there are two modes of time:
1) Sasa - time of every day events
2) Zamani - Mythological time
People like in sass time. When they are born they are actualized into sass. When they die that actualization is completed and the process of de-actualization begins. As the ones who know them slowly die off the dead move further from the sasa into the zamani. Eventually they are engulfed in Zamani time.
Zamani gives purpose to sasa, but does not extend it.
The Christianization of Africa has taken two forms:
1) A traditional European style
2) A syncretism of traditional African religion and Christianity (independent churches).
The "independent churches" of Africa have adopted an eschatology, thus giving them hope for the future which traditional African conceptions of time denied them.
The Future in Western Religions
The future of Western Religions is tied into their messianic figures.
Judaism
Judaism had several messianic expectations by the time of Christ. Many the Messiah would liberate the Jews from Roman oppression and reestablish Israel.
The Essenes at Qumran expected at least two messiahs: a messianic king and a messianic priest.
The Saducees and the ruling priests might not have anticipated a messiah at all.
The messiah was expected to be human, but equal to God's first created being, the angel Metatron.
Also, the messiah would be the Son of David and heir to the throne.
The messiah would restore Israel politically and spiritually.
The messiah would liberate Jews from oppression.
Judaism has had a history of messianic pretenders. Bar Kokhba in the 2nd century and Sabbatai Zevi in the 17th century are the most notable two.
The Hasidic movement has shied away from claiming messianic status of their leaders and even opposed the creation of the modern state of Israel because they believed it was blasphemous to have Israel without a messianic king.
Reform Jews have given up the search for a Messiah.
Islam
Islam hopes for the Mahdi (the right guided one) as the last messenger of Allah.
The Mahdi is based on the Hadith, not the Qur'an.
The majority of Muslims are Sunni muslims and do not have a specific Mahdi theology.
The Shi'ite Muslims believe the Mahdi has a theological role.
Jesus Christ is the second most important prophet in Islam. Islam believes that Christ will return before the judgment and lead the faithful in prayer. But usually Jesus is not considered the Mahdi.
Shi'ite muslims claimed that the imams had the same spiritual authority as Muhammad. They have a super human standing.
The last imam to have this authority, according to the Shi'ites did not die, but went into hiding. He will return as the Mahdi.
Islam has had a number of Mahdi pretenders.
Umar II, one of the caliphs of the Umayyad dynasty was revered as the Mahdi for a while.
Mohammad Ahmad in the 19th century sought to overthrow the Ottoman Empire from Sudan. He claimed to be the Mahdi. His revolution was put down by the Turks, the British and a counter-Mahdi, Sanusi Al-Mahdi.
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian claimed to be the Mahdi, the second coming of Christ and an avatar of Krishna. There are two groups that follow his teaching still.
Baha'i began as an offshoot of Shi'ites.
The Bab claimed to be the Mahdi in 1844.
Baha'ullah declared himself to be the successor of the Bab and established Baha'i.
In the future another manifestation of God will follow if there needs to be one.
Zoroastrianism
Zoroaster is to be succeeded every 1,000 years by his direct descendants.
Three times, a thousand years apart, a virgin will bathe in the lake and become impersonated with his sperm.
Aushetar, Aushetar mah, and Saoshyant will be born as prophets like Zoroaster. Saoshyant will restore true religion and usher in the purification of all human beings.
Tuesday, April 17, 2007
Class notes on grace & redemption
(Originally written April 17, 2007 in Book 15)
Class Notes
The Grace & Redemption Debate
Is Christianity the only way?
Response - the only way to what?
Salvation means different things in different religions.
Salvation meaning:
Christianity -> Atonement
Islam -> Test of Obedience
Zoroastrianism -> Dualism
Hindu Vedanta -> Atman = Brahman
Hindu Bhakti -> Reliance on deity
Buddhism -> Nirvana
Jainism -> Floating to the top
Jodo Shin-Shu -> Escape to Pure Land
Yoga -> Divorce spirit from body
Yoga is an adaptation of the Hindu school Samkhya.
Samkhya is:
1) atheistic
2) Dualistic
- Purusha: Soul
- Prkriti: Matter
3) Pluralistic
The point of Samkhya is to remove your Purusha from the constraints of Prkriti.
Yoga took this general idea and added the god Ishvara.
Ishvara is immovable.
The breathing and postures of Yoga are attempting to imitate Ishvara's immovability.
To practice Yoga for the physical benefits is the same as taking communion for the nutritional value of the bread and wine.
Different religions have different ends and different means to attaining those ends.
Pluralism
Radical Pluralism: J.A. DiNoia & Stephen Heim
-Each religion has its own understanding of salvation and is self-contained without overlap
Heim: "Nirvana - communion with God are contradictory only if we assume that one or the other must be the sole fate for all human beings"
Problem: Heim is not true to the religions here
Problems with radical pluralism:
1) Exclusivity
2) There cannot be mutually exclusive true practices
3) We would have to make up concepts for this methodology because it is self-setting
John Hick's Forced Pluralism
1) All religions serve to bring people into contact with "The Real"
2) No religion has an edge on any others
3) All religions do an equal job of bringing their followers into relationship with the Real
4) The actual beliefs of religions differ from each other.
5) The Real is beyond all human words and concepts
6) All religions are legitimate ways to the Real
Hick on exclusive religions: Since salvation is not confined to Christianity we must reject all the old exclusivist dogma. This has in fact been done by most thinking Christians, though exceptions remain, mostly within the extreme Protestant fundamentalist constituencies.
Hick's Model
Buddhism: stripped of its Buddhist concepts
Hinduism: stripped of its Hindu concepts
Islam: stripped of its Islamic concepts
Christianity: stripped of its Christian concepts
All of these point man towards the real
Hick limits his model to Axial Age and Post-Axial Age religions (6th century B.C. on)
Heim's critique of Hick: The Real is like a cardboard cutout on the boardwalk. Put your head in the hole and you are in contact with the real.
Sumner Twiss' defense of Hick
Higher order theory with a Lower order description
Lower order descriptions that are in each religion may not fit the higher order theory. But that just means that lower order descriptions need to be changed to fit the scheme.
Iranaeus (2nd Century Apologist) vs. Gnostics
Gnosticism:
Monotes (awareness) -> Denotes (otherness) -> Monas (one-ness)-> Hen (other)
Iraneaus' satire of gnosticism
Gourd -> Utter-Emptiness -> Cucumber -> Melon -> The writings of Valentinus
Hick, like Valentinus is completely contrived. The description is totally arbitrary.
Class Notes
The Grace & Redemption Debate
Is Christianity the only way?
Response - the only way to what?
Salvation means different things in different religions.
Salvation meaning:
Christianity -> Atonement
Islam -> Test of Obedience
Zoroastrianism -> Dualism
Hindu Vedanta -> Atman = Brahman
Hindu Bhakti -> Reliance on deity
Buddhism -> Nirvana
Jainism -> Floating to the top
Jodo Shin-Shu -> Escape to Pure Land
Yoga -> Divorce spirit from body
Yoga is an adaptation of the Hindu school Samkhya.
Samkhya is:
1) atheistic
2) Dualistic
- Purusha: Soul
- Prkriti: Matter
3) Pluralistic
The point of Samkhya is to remove your Purusha from the constraints of Prkriti.
Yoga took this general idea and added the god Ishvara.
Ishvara is immovable.
The breathing and postures of Yoga are attempting to imitate Ishvara's immovability.
To practice Yoga for the physical benefits is the same as taking communion for the nutritional value of the bread and wine.
Different religions have different ends and different means to attaining those ends.
Pluralism
Radical Pluralism: J.A. DiNoia & Stephen Heim
-Each religion has its own understanding of salvation and is self-contained without overlap
Heim: "Nirvana - communion with God are contradictory only if we assume that one or the other must be the sole fate for all human beings"
Problem: Heim is not true to the religions here
Problems with radical pluralism:
1) Exclusivity
2) There cannot be mutually exclusive true practices
3) We would have to make up concepts for this methodology because it is self-setting
John Hick's Forced Pluralism
1) All religions serve to bring people into contact with "The Real"
2) No religion has an edge on any others
3) All religions do an equal job of bringing their followers into relationship with the Real
4) The actual beliefs of religions differ from each other.
5) The Real is beyond all human words and concepts
6) All religions are legitimate ways to the Real
Hick on exclusive religions: Since salvation is not confined to Christianity we must reject all the old exclusivist dogma. This has in fact been done by most thinking Christians, though exceptions remain, mostly within the extreme Protestant fundamentalist constituencies.
Hick's Model
Buddhism: stripped of its Buddhist concepts
Hinduism: stripped of its Hindu concepts
Islam: stripped of its Islamic concepts
Christianity: stripped of its Christian concepts
All of these point man towards the real
Hick limits his model to Axial Age and Post-Axial Age religions (6th century B.C. on)
Heim's critique of Hick: The Real is like a cardboard cutout on the boardwalk. Put your head in the hole and you are in contact with the real.
Sumner Twiss' defense of Hick
Higher order theory with a Lower order description
Lower order descriptions that are in each religion may not fit the higher order theory. But that just means that lower order descriptions need to be changed to fit the scheme.
Iranaeus (2nd Century Apologist) vs. Gnostics
Gnosticism:
Monotes (awareness) -> Denotes (otherness) -> Monas (one-ness)-> Hen (other)
Iraneaus' satire of gnosticism
Gourd -> Utter-Emptiness -> Cucumber -> Melon -> The writings of Valentinus
Hick, like Valentinus is completely contrived. The description is totally arbitrary.
Monday, April 16, 2007
Creation & Redemption in Eastern Traditions, Mysticism
(Originally written April 16, 2007 in Book 15)
In Eastern Religions one needs to be redeemed from phenomenal existence.
In Vedantic monistic Hinduism the philosophy begins with the continual existence of a soul (jiva) in this present world. Maya (this world) is full of suffering. So as long as jiva exists in the Maya the jiva will suffer. As the jiva exists in the Maya it is operated from its true state of existence as oneness with the Bhraman.
Samsara, the cycle of reincarnation that keeps the soul anchored in Maya, keeping people trapped in a life of suffering.
Whether one comes back as an animal, human, demon or whatever depends on the amount of Karma one accumulates by committing disruptive actions (Klesha).
The view of Samsara is a hopeless one because they do not see it as very easy to get out of the cycle.
Another major problem in this view is that of ignorance. One may not know his true identity of atman-Brahma. Salvation must come through knowledge (advaita).
Salvation is achieved through knowledge in Vedantic Hinduism.
Moksha is the "release" from Samsara.
Moksha is salvation in the sense that it saves one from phenomenal existence.
Buddhism, Jainism and other forms of Hinduism follow similar lines of salvation, but in there own way.
In Buddhism, it is not the identity of atman (the true self) one hopes to achieve, but anatman (non-self) [This is Theravada Buddhism].
In Theravada Buddhism salvation occurs when one recognizes that one does not exist and stop clinging to this realm of existence.
In Jainism we exist in the realm because of the accumulated karma (which in Jainism is actually physical matter clinging to our souls).
Karma is accumulated by our actions that harm other creatures.
To achieve salvation in Jainism one must cease doing things that accumulates dust on one's soul.
Jainism salvation also starts with knowledge. The soul that knows the truth and then acts on it is the soul that gains release from the cycle of reincarnation.
Chinese and Japanese traditions have no notion of salvation within themselves. Buddhism in these cultures has grafted the notion of salvation into them.
Christianity
Christianity is differentiated from all other religions by its notion of original sin.
Original sin rules out any neutral status of humanity. But, it is not Eastern in that original sin results from phenomenal existence, but fallen phenomenal existence.
The Fall of man resulted in a disruption of the God-man relationship. Salvation in Christianity is the restoration of this all important relationship.
Man is helpless and unable to restore this relationship through his own power.
Christianity holds that all human beings are fallen as a result of Adam's original sin.
Christianity emphasizes the fallenness of all human beings.
In Indic religions the cosmos and physical existence is corrupt; in Christianity the human soul is what is corrupt and if the cosmos and physical existence is corrupt it is because of the result of human fallenness.
The way to salvation in Christianity is through mediation via the atoning death of Christ.
Salvation entails a number of facets:
1) Justification - declaration of the sinner as righteous by God on the basis of Christ's work.
2) Regeneration - God implants a new nature in the person enabling him to live a righteous life.
3) Conversion - sinner turns from sin and trusts in God
4) Adoption - new believer is made a member of God's family
5) Indwelling - The Holy Spirit dwells within the believer
6) Glorification - Elevating the relationship between God and man to a higher status then Adam and God initially enjoyed.
In Christianity faith cannot be supplemented by works, but faith results in good works.
Grace in other religions
Christianity is not the only religion in where one is saved by faith alone.
There is a difference between grace and mercy.
Most religions have a concept of mercy which is usually a central concept.
Grace is entirely the result of the divine person's actions and is unaided by human efforts whatsoever.
Along with Christianity there are two classic examples of grace in world religions:
1) The cat school of Bhakti Hinduism
- Southern school of devotion to Rama
- Rama saves us the way a cat carries her young (in her mouth)
2) The Jodo-Shin-Shu school of Buddhism
- most popular school in Japan
- salvation comes from the buddha Amida
- The legend goes that Amido was a ruler under the influence of the Buddha Lokesvararaja and took up a monkshood. As a monk he went by the name Dharmakara and vowed not to achieve enlightenment until he made it possible for all creatures to achieve it. Thus, he created the pure land in which all would be reborn into and achieve nirvana in the next life.
- The monk Honen in the 12th century A.D. made this legend the core of his buddhism.
- One can enter the pure land in one's next life by stating "Namu Amida Butsu" (I worship the Buddha Amida (or "nembutsu" for short).
- Honen taught to recite nembutsu frequently to achieve rebirth as a male in the pure land.
- The Buddhist monk Shinran actually built on Honen's ideas and formed the Jodo-Shin-Shu school.
- Shinran taught that there is nothing a person can do to enter the Pure Land other than completely trusting in Amida.
Christian Response
In Christianity salvation comes via faith in Jesus Christ. In the cat school of Bhakti Hinduism comes through faith in Rama/Ishvana and in Jodo-Shin-Shu Buddhism grace comes through faith in Amida Butsu.
Christianity's concept of grace is tied to its concept of redemptive salvation which makes it drastically different than Eastern concepts of grace.
Christianity differentiates itself from all other religions in the role that its founder plays as a historical figure.
Islam could exist without Muhammad. Muhammad taught that Islam was practiced long before him, but it had been corrupted.
Muhammad plays an important role in Islam, but not an essential one.
The Buddha is neither unique nor essential to Buddhism. There were many Buddhas.
Jainism can exist without its founder Mahavira because he is non-essential.
Without the historicity of Christianity is a religion of impossible moral exhortations.
Without Jesus and his death on the cross and his resurrection there can be no Christian atonement.
Christianity is a wholly unique religion because it is falsifiable (Jesus' body could be found and falsify the resurrection) and because it can be shown as plausible because of historical evidence.
Cosmos & Mysticism
Mysticism exists in Eastern & Western Religions.
The essence of a mystical experience is that one participates in an unmediated link with something absolute.
Examples of Mysticism
1) A Sufi (Islam) experiences the closeness of Allah
2) A Kabbalist (Judaism) sees God on his throne (the devekuth)
3) The Vedantic Hindu who realizes the absorption of his atman in Brahman
4) The Bhakti Hindu who has a direct vision (darshan) of his deity
5) The Buddhist who comes to awareness in nirvana
6) The Daoist who yields all to the Dao
Eastern mystical experiences deal with paths of redemption whereas Western mystical experiences merely enhance the total spiritual picture.
There is no good reason to infer that Christian mystics encounter the same reality as non-Christian ones (contra the "Perennial Philosophy")
Mystics do not encounter "Reality" they encounter a deity.
There should not be too much significance placed on mystical experiences within Christianity.
Mystical experiences are not a part of Christianity's theological concept of redemption.
Cosmic Redemption
While there is no notion of Original Sin in Judaism, it stresses the fallen nature of the present world order.
In addition to human beings each needing individual redemption, the cosmos as a whole needs redemption.
In Western Traditions the cosmos will eventually be redeemed: Islam- Heaven & Hell; Judaism - kingdom of God; Christianity - New Heaven & Earth; Zoroastrianism - reclaiming of the universe. But, in Eastern traditions the cosmos are continually renewed, but never redeemed.
In Eastern Religions one needs to be redeemed from phenomenal existence.
In Vedantic monistic Hinduism the philosophy begins with the continual existence of a soul (jiva) in this present world. Maya (this world) is full of suffering. So as long as jiva exists in the Maya the jiva will suffer. As the jiva exists in the Maya it is operated from its true state of existence as oneness with the Bhraman.
Samsara, the cycle of reincarnation that keeps the soul anchored in Maya, keeping people trapped in a life of suffering.
Whether one comes back as an animal, human, demon or whatever depends on the amount of Karma one accumulates by committing disruptive actions (Klesha).
The view of Samsara is a hopeless one because they do not see it as very easy to get out of the cycle.
Another major problem in this view is that of ignorance. One may not know his true identity of atman-Brahma. Salvation must come through knowledge (advaita).
Salvation is achieved through knowledge in Vedantic Hinduism.
Moksha is the "release" from Samsara.
Moksha is salvation in the sense that it saves one from phenomenal existence.
Buddhism, Jainism and other forms of Hinduism follow similar lines of salvation, but in there own way.
In Buddhism, it is not the identity of atman (the true self) one hopes to achieve, but anatman (non-self) [This is Theravada Buddhism].
In Theravada Buddhism salvation occurs when one recognizes that one does not exist and stop clinging to this realm of existence.
In Jainism we exist in the realm because of the accumulated karma (which in Jainism is actually physical matter clinging to our souls).
Karma is accumulated by our actions that harm other creatures.
To achieve salvation in Jainism one must cease doing things that accumulates dust on one's soul.
Jainism salvation also starts with knowledge. The soul that knows the truth and then acts on it is the soul that gains release from the cycle of reincarnation.
Chinese and Japanese traditions have no notion of salvation within themselves. Buddhism in these cultures has grafted the notion of salvation into them.
Christianity
Christianity is differentiated from all other religions by its notion of original sin.
Original sin rules out any neutral status of humanity. But, it is not Eastern in that original sin results from phenomenal existence, but fallen phenomenal existence.
The Fall of man resulted in a disruption of the God-man relationship. Salvation in Christianity is the restoration of this all important relationship.
Man is helpless and unable to restore this relationship through his own power.
Christianity holds that all human beings are fallen as a result of Adam's original sin.
Christianity emphasizes the fallenness of all human beings.
In Indic religions the cosmos and physical existence is corrupt; in Christianity the human soul is what is corrupt and if the cosmos and physical existence is corrupt it is because of the result of human fallenness.
The way to salvation in Christianity is through mediation via the atoning death of Christ.
Salvation entails a number of facets:
1) Justification - declaration of the sinner as righteous by God on the basis of Christ's work.
2) Regeneration - God implants a new nature in the person enabling him to live a righteous life.
3) Conversion - sinner turns from sin and trusts in God
4) Adoption - new believer is made a member of God's family
5) Indwelling - The Holy Spirit dwells within the believer
6) Glorification - Elevating the relationship between God and man to a higher status then Adam and God initially enjoyed.
In Christianity faith cannot be supplemented by works, but faith results in good works.
Grace in other religions
Christianity is not the only religion in where one is saved by faith alone.
There is a difference between grace and mercy.
Most religions have a concept of mercy which is usually a central concept.
Grace is entirely the result of the divine person's actions and is unaided by human efforts whatsoever.
Along with Christianity there are two classic examples of grace in world religions:
1) The cat school of Bhakti Hinduism
- Southern school of devotion to Rama
- Rama saves us the way a cat carries her young (in her mouth)
2) The Jodo-Shin-Shu school of Buddhism
- most popular school in Japan
- salvation comes from the buddha Amida
- The legend goes that Amido was a ruler under the influence of the Buddha Lokesvararaja and took up a monkshood. As a monk he went by the name Dharmakara and vowed not to achieve enlightenment until he made it possible for all creatures to achieve it. Thus, he created the pure land in which all would be reborn into and achieve nirvana in the next life.
- The monk Honen in the 12th century A.D. made this legend the core of his buddhism.
- One can enter the pure land in one's next life by stating "Namu Amida Butsu" (I worship the Buddha Amida (or "nembutsu" for short).
- Honen taught to recite nembutsu frequently to achieve rebirth as a male in the pure land.
- The Buddhist monk Shinran actually built on Honen's ideas and formed the Jodo-Shin-Shu school.
- Shinran taught that there is nothing a person can do to enter the Pure Land other than completely trusting in Amida.
Christian Response
In Christianity salvation comes via faith in Jesus Christ. In the cat school of Bhakti Hinduism comes through faith in Rama/Ishvana and in Jodo-Shin-Shu Buddhism grace comes through faith in Amida Butsu.
Christianity's concept of grace is tied to its concept of redemptive salvation which makes it drastically different than Eastern concepts of grace.
Christianity differentiates itself from all other religions in the role that its founder plays as a historical figure.
Islam could exist without Muhammad. Muhammad taught that Islam was practiced long before him, but it had been corrupted.
Muhammad plays an important role in Islam, but not an essential one.
The Buddha is neither unique nor essential to Buddhism. There were many Buddhas.
Jainism can exist without its founder Mahavira because he is non-essential.
Without the historicity of Christianity is a religion of impossible moral exhortations.
Without Jesus and his death on the cross and his resurrection there can be no Christian atonement.
Christianity is a wholly unique religion because it is falsifiable (Jesus' body could be found and falsify the resurrection) and because it can be shown as plausible because of historical evidence.
Cosmos & Mysticism
Mysticism exists in Eastern & Western Religions.
The essence of a mystical experience is that one participates in an unmediated link with something absolute.
Examples of Mysticism
1) A Sufi (Islam) experiences the closeness of Allah
2) A Kabbalist (Judaism) sees God on his throne (the devekuth)
3) The Vedantic Hindu who realizes the absorption of his atman in Brahman
4) The Bhakti Hindu who has a direct vision (darshan) of his deity
5) The Buddhist who comes to awareness in nirvana
6) The Daoist who yields all to the Dao
Eastern mystical experiences deal with paths of redemption whereas Western mystical experiences merely enhance the total spiritual picture.
There is no good reason to infer that Christian mystics encounter the same reality as non-Christian ones (contra the "Perennial Philosophy")
Mystics do not encounter "Reality" they encounter a deity.
There should not be too much significance placed on mystical experiences within Christianity.
Mystical experiences are not a part of Christianity's theological concept of redemption.
Cosmic Redemption
While there is no notion of Original Sin in Judaism, it stresses the fallen nature of the present world order.
In addition to human beings each needing individual redemption, the cosmos as a whole needs redemption.
In Western Traditions the cosmos will eventually be redeemed: Islam- Heaven & Hell; Judaism - kingdom of God; Christianity - New Heaven & Earth; Zoroastrianism - reclaiming of the universe. But, in Eastern traditions the cosmos are continually renewed, but never redeemed.
Wednesday, April 11, 2007
Morality & Guilt in various religions
(Originally written April 11, 2007 in book 15)
Chapter 4 - Morality & Guilt
Some fundamental distinctions
There are many moral concepts that are universal to all religions.
Duties in Religion
1. Moral Norms
2. Religious Norms
A. Obligatory Actions
B. Ritual avoidances
i. Defilement of self
ii. Defilement of the Holy
The Common Core
There are similarities in moral codes from religion to religion, but upon closer examination they can be seriously different.
Some principles may seem similar like Thou Shall Not Kill of Judaism & Christianity and the principle of ahimsa - the 10 precepts of Buddhism. But, "Thou shall not kill" means do not murder, while ahimsa is no harming of life whatsoever.
Other principles are completely contrary from religion to religion. The second commandment, "Thou shall not bow down before any graven images" is contrary to the statues of Buddhas, an integral part of Buddhism. Ahimsa is contrary to the animal sacrifice of the Old Testament.
Religious and ethical considerations go hand in hand. An ethical concept of a religion cannot be isolated from the overall context of that religion.
The Ceremonial Dimension
Sin and defilement are very different. Sin (a breaking of a moral rule) involves intent, whereas defilement (a breaking of a ceremonial rule) completely disregards intent.
Moral, religious, and ceremonial concepts can be isolated only in theory. In practice they work hand in hand and no such distinction is found among practitioners.
Case in point: Christianity
Christianity is not an ethical religion like Judaism or Islam. It is a redemptive religion The heart of Christianity is not its moral code (it does have one) but a historical event leading to the salvation of men.
The Law within Christianity operates in a few ways:
1) It governs life so that life is actually livable.
2) It functions as a "schoolmaster" (Galatians 3:24). It prepares us for adoption into God's family. It shows us that we are incapable of earning admittance into God's family and that we can enter only by Grace.
3) The keeping of the law is only possible via the regenerative work of the Holy Spirit.
"Christian ethics apart from a Christian supernatural setting is pointless" (Corduan, 88).
Christian religion and Christian ethics are utterly and wholly intertwined. Without the theological underpinnings of Christianity all that is left is an impossible moral code.
From its inception Christianity ahas been against many of the ritual prohibitions that were integral parts of Jewish and Gentile societies.
The only occurrence of ceremonial purity in the New Testament is Paul's admonishment of the Corinthians' treatment of the Lord's supper (1 Corinthians 11:17-34).
Corduan believes that this admonition is not so much a command for personal holiness prior to partaking of Communion, but a mandate to understand communion correctly and to treat it with proper respect. Linehan feels that this is a ceremonial purity issue right now (subject to change of course).
Side not: It may not be a call to become personally holy before partaking communion because that would in fact deny the nature of communion, but a more inner ceremonial purity in being ready to partake of communion. As for what communion is I am not ready to give it the Catholic transubstantiation status, but neither do I want to reduce it to a mere remembrance of the event. I think it is a true partaking of something holy and not merely a remembrance of something holy.
In various aspects of Christendom throughout history some ceremonial purity has emerged, but is not a part of the New Testament.
Ethics in the religious universe
Judaism & Islam have similar ethical codes.
Judaism has a longer history and a much more detailed set of codes.
The moral codes function differently in Islam and Judaism. Adherence to the moral code in Judaism is an expression of the relationship between the Jew and YHWH whereas adherence to the moral code in Islam is the way to enter Heaven for the Muslim.
The standards of Judaism also apply solely to the Jews whereas the moral codes of Islam we taken as universally binding.
Zoroastrianism's moral code is similar to Islamic & Jewish codes. All three were revealed by God to a prophet (Zoroastrianism - Zoroaster, Islam - Muhammad, Judaism - Moses).
Zoroastrianism however is preoccupied with ceremonial purity more than ethical obligations.
In Indic religions (Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism) there is a two-tiered arrangement. Monks have stricter codes than the laity.
The Hindu code is hinged on the caste system. All ethical and moral obligations are tied to one's caste.
Hinduism also has duties associated with stages of life.
A man must become a sannyasin and renounce everything, his name, his family, his caste, etc. in order to achieve moksha (release, liberation).
The monks in Buddhism and Jainism are the only ones capable of release from the cycle of reincarnation. The laity can work to have a better rebirth, but cannot achieve nirvana.
Jainism is harshly ascetic. Eventually a monk will starve himself to achieve his goal.
Buddhism considers itself the "middle way" and is not as ascetic as Jainism.
Buddhism teaches that harsh asceticism can be a hinderance to spiritual enlightenment.
Confucianism is above all else a code of behavior.
Confucianism came to exist within other religions (Daoism/Buddhism in China, Shinto in Japan), not along side it.
Confucianism focuses on human behavior and teaches that proper individual behavior will alleviate societal problems.
Confucianism does not possess within itself any religious doctrine.
Violations and their Consequences
There are two major trajectories in the world's religions:
1) Western/Abrahamic Traditions
- Judaism
- Zoroastrianism
- Islam
- Baha'i
- Christianity
2) Eastern/Indic Traditions
- Hinduism
- Buddhism
- Jainism
- Sikhism
- Daoism
These two groups differ radically on the conception of sin.
In Abrahamic religions sin is an offending of God and breaking the human-God relationship.
In Indic religion sin is a negative Karmic effect.
God is the source of moral rules in monotheistic traditions.
The character of moral law is prescriptive and proscriptive, not descriptive in Abrahamic traditions.
Punishment occurs after sin in the West. It could be a warning, salutary, or be a making of an example out of the person.
Punitive action results out of a decree of a personal God. A personal God can also provide mercy or grace to the sinner.
Sin in the Indic traditions is similar to breaking a natural law.
Indic religions have the concept of Karma, which is not tied to a personal God.
In Hinduism, Karma is tied to Samsara, the cycle of rebirths. One's present life is the result of one's previous life.
Karma is not deterministic or fatalistic in Hinduism. One controls one's karma.
Karma is automated in Hinduism. It is not (usually) a judgment passed by a deity.
Karma is negative and pessimistic. It is viewed as perpetual suffering.
The goal of Hinduism is not to accumulate good karma, but to escape the samsara cycle.
There can be a divine intervention in samsara and karma. This is what the Bhagavad Gita tells Hindus.
The negative aspect of karma is even more noticeable in Buddhism and Jainism.
Buddha taught that there is no individual soul and that each person's an aggregate of effects.
Good karma in Buddhism is karma nonetheless and must be balanced out in another life. The goal is to have no karma at all.
In Jainism, Karma is a dust that accumulates on one's soul.
Only a complet abnégation of life leads to release from samsara.
The goal of a Jain monk is to do nothing and to starve himself to death.
Sin belongs within the framework of a system with a personal God. Karma fits into a framework without a personal deity much better.
Christianity alone possesses the notion of "original sin". At first blush this can appear similar to karma in that everyone is born into a state of condemnation through no fault of our own.
The major misunderstanding with original sin is to tie it to finitude. Our finitude makes it impossible not to sin is a common erroneous belief.
Christ proved that human being can live a sinless life.
Original Sin describes the broken relationship between man and God, not the introduction of finitude.
Healing the Breach
Ronal M. Green distinguishes between four senses of reason
1) Theoretical reason - our conceptualization of the world around us
2) Prudential reason - our capacity for living successfully in the world as we understand it
3) Moral reason - places our priorities in order
4) Religious reason - attempts to reconcile the conflict between prudential and moral reason
Response to the World Parliament Statement
Only the most minimal code seems to be fairly universal (truth-property-life-sex) and even these must not be abstracted from their religious context lest they become equivocations and meaningless.
The statement, originally by Hans Küng calls for an end to prejudice and hate. This is all well and good unless it denies objective truth on matters like abortion and homosexuality. Many Christians are labeled as bigots for their stances on these issues.
Likewise, Küng demands that religions denounce their fundamentalists because they deny peace among religions and without religious peace there can be no world peace. But this world be a denouncement of objective truth on many vital issues.
The 1997 Declaration of a Global Ethic affirms an universal moral code and locates it where it ought to be, within a religious context. But, it does not give any implementation strategy and leave evangelical Christians in a place where they cannot agree with it without giving away too much.
Chapter 4 - Morality & Guilt
Some fundamental distinctions
There are many moral concepts that are universal to all religions.
Duties in Religion
1. Moral Norms
2. Religious Norms
A. Obligatory Actions
B. Ritual avoidances
i. Defilement of self
ii. Defilement of the Holy
The Common Core
There are similarities in moral codes from religion to religion, but upon closer examination they can be seriously different.
Some principles may seem similar like Thou Shall Not Kill of Judaism & Christianity and the principle of ahimsa - the 10 precepts of Buddhism. But, "Thou shall not kill" means do not murder, while ahimsa is no harming of life whatsoever.
Other principles are completely contrary from religion to religion. The second commandment, "Thou shall not bow down before any graven images" is contrary to the statues of Buddhas, an integral part of Buddhism. Ahimsa is contrary to the animal sacrifice of the Old Testament.
Religious and ethical considerations go hand in hand. An ethical concept of a religion cannot be isolated from the overall context of that religion.
The Ceremonial Dimension
Sin and defilement are very different. Sin (a breaking of a moral rule) involves intent, whereas defilement (a breaking of a ceremonial rule) completely disregards intent.
Moral, religious, and ceremonial concepts can be isolated only in theory. In practice they work hand in hand and no such distinction is found among practitioners.
Case in point: Christianity
Christianity is not an ethical religion like Judaism or Islam. It is a redemptive religion The heart of Christianity is not its moral code (it does have one) but a historical event leading to the salvation of men.
The Law within Christianity operates in a few ways:
1) It governs life so that life is actually livable.
2) It functions as a "schoolmaster" (Galatians 3:24). It prepares us for adoption into God's family. It shows us that we are incapable of earning admittance into God's family and that we can enter only by Grace.
3) The keeping of the law is only possible via the regenerative work of the Holy Spirit.
"Christian ethics apart from a Christian supernatural setting is pointless" (Corduan, 88).
Christian religion and Christian ethics are utterly and wholly intertwined. Without the theological underpinnings of Christianity all that is left is an impossible moral code.
From its inception Christianity ahas been against many of the ritual prohibitions that were integral parts of Jewish and Gentile societies.
The only occurrence of ceremonial purity in the New Testament is Paul's admonishment of the Corinthians' treatment of the Lord's supper (1 Corinthians 11:17-34).
Corduan believes that this admonition is not so much a command for personal holiness prior to partaking of Communion, but a mandate to understand communion correctly and to treat it with proper respect. Linehan feels that this is a ceremonial purity issue right now (subject to change of course).
Side not: It may not be a call to become personally holy before partaking communion because that would in fact deny the nature of communion, but a more inner ceremonial purity in being ready to partake of communion. As for what communion is I am not ready to give it the Catholic transubstantiation status, but neither do I want to reduce it to a mere remembrance of the event. I think it is a true partaking of something holy and not merely a remembrance of something holy.
In various aspects of Christendom throughout history some ceremonial purity has emerged, but is not a part of the New Testament.
Ethics in the religious universe
Judaism & Islam have similar ethical codes.
Judaism has a longer history and a much more detailed set of codes.
The moral codes function differently in Islam and Judaism. Adherence to the moral code in Judaism is an expression of the relationship between the Jew and YHWH whereas adherence to the moral code in Islam is the way to enter Heaven for the Muslim.
The standards of Judaism also apply solely to the Jews whereas the moral codes of Islam we taken as universally binding.
Zoroastrianism's moral code is similar to Islamic & Jewish codes. All three were revealed by God to a prophet (Zoroastrianism - Zoroaster, Islam - Muhammad, Judaism - Moses).
Zoroastrianism however is preoccupied with ceremonial purity more than ethical obligations.
In Indic religions (Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism) there is a two-tiered arrangement. Monks have stricter codes than the laity.
The Hindu code is hinged on the caste system. All ethical and moral obligations are tied to one's caste.
Hinduism also has duties associated with stages of life.
A man must become a sannyasin and renounce everything, his name, his family, his caste, etc. in order to achieve moksha (release, liberation).
The monks in Buddhism and Jainism are the only ones capable of release from the cycle of reincarnation. The laity can work to have a better rebirth, but cannot achieve nirvana.
Jainism is harshly ascetic. Eventually a monk will starve himself to achieve his goal.
Buddhism considers itself the "middle way" and is not as ascetic as Jainism.
Buddhism teaches that harsh asceticism can be a hinderance to spiritual enlightenment.
Confucianism is above all else a code of behavior.
Confucianism came to exist within other religions (Daoism/Buddhism in China, Shinto in Japan), not along side it.
Confucianism focuses on human behavior and teaches that proper individual behavior will alleviate societal problems.
Confucianism does not possess within itself any religious doctrine.
Violations and their Consequences
There are two major trajectories in the world's religions:
1) Western/Abrahamic Traditions
- Judaism
- Zoroastrianism
- Islam
- Baha'i
- Christianity
2) Eastern/Indic Traditions
- Hinduism
- Buddhism
- Jainism
- Sikhism
- Daoism
These two groups differ radically on the conception of sin.
In Abrahamic religions sin is an offending of God and breaking the human-God relationship.
In Indic religion sin is a negative Karmic effect.
God is the source of moral rules in monotheistic traditions.
The character of moral law is prescriptive and proscriptive, not descriptive in Abrahamic traditions.
Punishment occurs after sin in the West. It could be a warning, salutary, or be a making of an example out of the person.
Punitive action results out of a decree of a personal God. A personal God can also provide mercy or grace to the sinner.
Sin in the Indic traditions is similar to breaking a natural law.
Indic religions have the concept of Karma, which is not tied to a personal God.
In Hinduism, Karma is tied to Samsara, the cycle of rebirths. One's present life is the result of one's previous life.
Karma is not deterministic or fatalistic in Hinduism. One controls one's karma.
Karma is automated in Hinduism. It is not (usually) a judgment passed by a deity.
Karma is negative and pessimistic. It is viewed as perpetual suffering.
The goal of Hinduism is not to accumulate good karma, but to escape the samsara cycle.
There can be a divine intervention in samsara and karma. This is what the Bhagavad Gita tells Hindus.
The negative aspect of karma is even more noticeable in Buddhism and Jainism.
Buddha taught that there is no individual soul and that each person's an aggregate of effects.
Good karma in Buddhism is karma nonetheless and must be balanced out in another life. The goal is to have no karma at all.
In Jainism, Karma is a dust that accumulates on one's soul.
Only a complet abnégation of life leads to release from samsara.
The goal of a Jain monk is to do nothing and to starve himself to death.
Sin belongs within the framework of a system with a personal God. Karma fits into a framework without a personal deity much better.
Christianity alone possesses the notion of "original sin". At first blush this can appear similar to karma in that everyone is born into a state of condemnation through no fault of our own.
The major misunderstanding with original sin is to tie it to finitude. Our finitude makes it impossible not to sin is a common erroneous belief.
Christ proved that human being can live a sinless life.
Original Sin describes the broken relationship between man and God, not the introduction of finitude.
Healing the Breach
Ronal M. Green distinguishes between four senses of reason
1) Theoretical reason - our conceptualization of the world around us
2) Prudential reason - our capacity for living successfully in the world as we understand it
3) Moral reason - places our priorities in order
4) Religious reason - attempts to reconcile the conflict between prudential and moral reason
Response to the World Parliament Statement
Only the most minimal code seems to be fairly universal (truth-property-life-sex) and even these must not be abstracted from their religious context lest they become equivocations and meaningless.
The statement, originally by Hans Küng calls for an end to prejudice and hate. This is all well and good unless it denies objective truth on matters like abortion and homosexuality. Many Christians are labeled as bigots for their stances on these issues.
Likewise, Küng demands that religions denounce their fundamentalists because they deny peace among religions and without religious peace there can be no world peace. But this world be a denouncement of objective truth on many vital issues.
The 1997 Declaration of a Global Ethic affirms an universal moral code and locates it where it ought to be, within a religious context. But, it does not give any implementation strategy and leave evangelical Christians in a place where they cannot agree with it without giving away too much.
Original Monotheism, Special Revelation and other Scriptures
(Originally written April 11, 2007 in Book 15)
Subsequent Reaction to Schmidt & Original Monotheism
Whether or not one accepts Schmidt's theory it is no longer possible to strictly adhere to an evolutionary theory of religion in light of Schmidt's anthropological evidence.
The most common reaction to Schmidt is to reject his conclusions on an idealogical basis.
Joseph M. Kitasawa claims that while historical evidence is good in the origin theory, any religion's origin is ultimately answerable with metaphysical answers.
Others, like many post-modernists, including David Adams Leeming, claim that religion arises out of a specific social context. Historical investigation is wholly absent from this type of analysis.
Raffaele Pettazzoni attempts to bridge the gap of extreme historistic theories and purely a historical phenomenology. He gave history its due place, but did not draw such strong conclusions as Schmidt.
Pettazzoni maintained that the Supreme god of primitive cultures did not constitute monotheistic religion because that god was a creator and sustainer god, but a remote god nonetheless. He argued that only reform from polytheism could lead to true monotheism.
Summary
There is good reason to believe that religion began with the awareness of a single, creator God.
The God of original monotheism is identical to the God of Scripture in his basic attributes.
The persistence of monotheism can be attributed to the historical continuity with the awareness of God by the first human beings and its reinforcement in general revelation.
General revelation has two dimensions:
1) An intuitive one
2) A rational one
Both yield:
1) Knowledge of the existence of God
2) Knowledge of God's attributes
3) Knowledge of a fundamental moral sense
Chapter 3 - Special Revelation and Non-Christian Scriptures
Christianity maintains that special revelation is located in the Old Testament and New Testament, as well as in Jesus Christ himself.
There are many non-Christian scriptures, but the nature of Scripture is radically different in each religion.
Corduan's "The Protestant Fallacy" is reading other religions' scriptures as one would read the Christian Scriptures. Since scriptural nature varies from religion to religion there can be no single way of reading or regarding Scriptures. One cannot assume the role of Scripture in any religion is identical to the role of Scripture in Christianity.
The Protestant Fallacy
Classical Protestantism holds that the Bible is the literal Word of God and thus, the text is inspired by God.
Protestantism asserts "sola scriptura". That is, there is no other source for propositional revelation other than the Bible.
Protestant Christianity is an "extremely book-bound form of religion" (Corduan, 57-58).
Protestant Christianity stands or falls by Scriptural assertions.
The Protestant fallacy is applying this "sola scriptura" mentality (which is appropriate for the Bible) to other religion's scriptures.
Judaism: The Deuterocanon as key to the Canon
The Protestant fallacy manifests itself when one assumes that to understand Judaism one must simply study the Old Testament.
This can lead to assertions like, "since the Jews no longer perform the ritual sacrifices they are required by their own scriptures, Judaism is internally incoherent".
The Scriptures of Judaism are identical with the Old Testament Canon of Christianity. These books are known in Judaism as the Tanak (TNK).
The Tanak is an acronym based on the Hebrew names of the three divisions of writings:
1) the Law - Torah
2) the Prophets - Nebiim
3) the Writings - Ketubim
When Jerusalem fell in A.D. 70 the Jews began writing down the interpretations of the Tanak which had been entirely oral before.
The Mishnah was produced around A.D. 500. Later, the Talmud was produced.
Since the production of the Talmud, all Judaism is Talmudic Judaism.
Orthodox Judaism holds that the Talmud, though not inspired, is expendable, but not revisable.
Other sects of Judaism, like Cabalistic movements accepted the Zohar as a supplement, but not a replacement, to the Talmud.
While the Tanak is the only Scripture in Judaism, all governance of life is done via the Talmud.
The Jewish Scriptures (for better or worse) must be interpreted through the lens of the Talmud.
Islam: The Qur'an as Event
The Qur'an is the compilation of what was revealed to Muhammad.
The Qur'an is merely excerpts from God's full book in heaven, the umm-al-kitub.
Muslims believe the Qur'an is as it is exactly as it was when it was revealed to Muhammad.
Despite its lofty place in Islam, the Qur'an was supplemented easy on by another book. The Hadith is a collection of the acts and sayings of Muhammad.
While the Hadith is not considered to be revealed like the Qur'an, it is nonetheless as binding as the Qur'an.
The value of the Qur'an within Islam has little to do with its content. The value lies in its very occurrence.
The Qur'an is utterly pristine, whereas other men's revelatory books like Moses' Law, David's Psalms and Jesus' Gospels while being products of revelation were distorted by their followers.
TO recognize the Qur'an is more important than to read it.
The Qur'an is not a human book at all; whereas, the Bible is wholly human and wholly divine.
Muslims believe that the Qur'an mediates God's presence into their lives.
Even in non-Arabic speaking countries the Qur'an is devoutly recited in Arabic. Recitation of the Qur'an is the most important function of the Qur'an in the Muslim community.
Zoroastrianism: A Ritual Accumulation
Similar to the Bible, the canon of Zoroastrianism is a collection of works spanning many centuries.
The Zoroastrianism Scripture is called the Avesta.
The oldest part of the Avesta is the Yasna, which contains hymns called the Gathas, some of which date back to Zoroaster (6th century B.C.).
The Videvdat is the newest part of the Avesta and dates from when Zoroastrianism was the State religion of Iran (A.D. 226 - 637).
The Avesta is not a great source for authoritative information about Zoroastrianism because the language is so impenetrable.
The language of the Gathas is called Avesta because it is simply so different from any other languages.
"One scholar of Iranian religion [H.S. Nybers] has maintained that the Gathas are so difficult to understand because they are intentional gibberish" (Corduan, 62).
Even in the Zoroastrian community, the Avesta is not supposed to be a source of information.
The Avesta is a ritual text used to recite as worship and purification.
Sikhism: A day in the Life of the Book
The Adi Granth is the Scripture of Sikhism.
Nanak (1469-1539) founded Sikhism as a way to bridge Hinduism and Islam. He taught that there is only one God whose nature lies beyond human reason and religious imagery.
Nanak was considered a holy guru by his followers. He was then followed by 9 other holy gurus, each seen as the embodiment of divine light.
Arjan Dev, the 5th Guru compiled all his and the previous gurus' chants and hymns into the Adi Granth.
Gobind Singh (1666-1708) the 10th and final guru, declared that there would be no more gurus and the Adi Granth would be the guru forever more.
From then on the book itself, which is displayed in the Golden Shrine of Amritsa has been recognized as true and binding by all Sikhs.
The Adi Granth is the very embodiment of God.
The Adi Granth functions in two ways:
1) It is the hymn book of the congregation
2) It is venerated as the holy guru.
The actual book is put to sleep in a bed at night and woken up and placed on an altar each morning.
"The basic function of the Adi Granth is an object of veneration, not as a record of revelation" (Corduan, 65).
Baha'i : A Canon Plus a Canon
Baha'i is a young religion founded by Baha'ullah.
Baha'ullah is considered to be a manifestation of God. He was the 9th manifestation after Abraham, Krishna, Moses, Zoroaster, Buddha, Jesus, Muhammad, the Bab and Baha'ullah.
Baha'ullah taught that all these other prophets had inspired writings and that his own writings complete the canon of world Scriptures for the time being.
The Baha'i Scriptures should be read in a similar fashion as the Protestant Christian Bible is, but the Baha'i Scriptures are paralleled by all the other 8 world Scriptures, whereas the Bible stands alone.
Hinduism: A Protean Canon
Eastern religions have sacred texts in a very different way then to Western religions, especially Christianity.
Hindu sacred texts are divided into two groups:
1) The Shruti
2) The Smriti
The Shruti are "seen", they were directly revealed to the semi-divine rishis of old who passed them down.
The Smriti are "heard", they are merely passed down as tradition only.
Shruti:
- Vedas
- Brahmanas
- Upanishads
Smriti:
- Ramayana
- Mahabharata
- Bhagavad Gita
The Smriti are epic poems and the deuterocanon, while the canon is the Vedic complex.
The distinction is much more ambiguous in reality then in theory.
Buddhism: Canon by Selection
Two major books:
1) Poli Canon
2) Lotus Sutra
The Poli Canon contains the Tripitaka (Three Baskets) and is the oldest Buddhist writings.
The Tripitaka is associated with the older, more traditional form of Buddhism, Theravada Buddhism.
The Lotus Sutra is associated with the more recent and more innovative form of Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism.
Chinese and Japanese Religions
Scriptures and Canon are not easily adapted for Far East Religions.
Religion/Scriptures
Daoism - The Doodejing & the Zhuangzi
Confucianism - The Analects
Shinto - The Kojiki, the Nihong and the Amatsu Narito
The Daodejing contains the wisdom of Lao Tzu, the founder of Daoism.
The Zhuangzi is a collection of anecdotal essays by the teacher Laozi (but probably not the same Laozi/Lao-Tzu)
The Analects is the teachings of Confucius.
The Kojiki is the official Japanese traditional myth. The Nihangi is a supplement to the Kojiki. The Amatsu Nihong is a book of standard prayers and rituals of Shinto.
The Singularity of the Christian Scriptures
The Christian Scriptures is different from all other Scriptures and all Scriptures are unique in their own way.
All Scriptures contain some truths, if truth is meant as that which corresponds to reality.
However, if truth is understood under the coherence theory of truth rather than the correspondence theory of truth then no religions can share truth because they will be truths from differing systems.
Cornelius van Til argued that even knowledge of a flower is different for a Christian and non-Christian. To the Christian, a flower is the creation of a personal God whereas it is a product of chance formation of matter to a non-Christian.
Other Scriptures also contain some wisdom. They also contain some religious truths.
That said, the Bible is sufficient. All we (as Christians) have is the Bible and all we need is the Bible.
There is no deuterocannon in Christianity.
Religious truths in other Scriptures can only be duplications of revealed truths in the Bible.
Other Scriptures do not contain special revelation. But other Scriptures can have a basis in general revelation.
Subsequent Reaction to Schmidt & Original Monotheism
Whether or not one accepts Schmidt's theory it is no longer possible to strictly adhere to an evolutionary theory of religion in light of Schmidt's anthropological evidence.
The most common reaction to Schmidt is to reject his conclusions on an idealogical basis.
Joseph M. Kitasawa claims that while historical evidence is good in the origin theory, any religion's origin is ultimately answerable with metaphysical answers.
Others, like many post-modernists, including David Adams Leeming, claim that religion arises out of a specific social context. Historical investigation is wholly absent from this type of analysis.
Raffaele Pettazzoni attempts to bridge the gap of extreme historistic theories and purely a historical phenomenology. He gave history its due place, but did not draw such strong conclusions as Schmidt.
Pettazzoni maintained that the Supreme god of primitive cultures did not constitute monotheistic religion because that god was a creator and sustainer god, but a remote god nonetheless. He argued that only reform from polytheism could lead to true monotheism.
Summary
There is good reason to believe that religion began with the awareness of a single, creator God.
The God of original monotheism is identical to the God of Scripture in his basic attributes.
The persistence of monotheism can be attributed to the historical continuity with the awareness of God by the first human beings and its reinforcement in general revelation.
General revelation has two dimensions:
1) An intuitive one
2) A rational one
Both yield:
1) Knowledge of the existence of God
2) Knowledge of God's attributes
3) Knowledge of a fundamental moral sense
Chapter 3 - Special Revelation and Non-Christian Scriptures
Christianity maintains that special revelation is located in the Old Testament and New Testament, as well as in Jesus Christ himself.
There are many non-Christian scriptures, but the nature of Scripture is radically different in each religion.
Corduan's "The Protestant Fallacy" is reading other religions' scriptures as one would read the Christian Scriptures. Since scriptural nature varies from religion to religion there can be no single way of reading or regarding Scriptures. One cannot assume the role of Scripture in any religion is identical to the role of Scripture in Christianity.
The Protestant Fallacy
Classical Protestantism holds that the Bible is the literal Word of God and thus, the text is inspired by God.
Protestantism asserts "sola scriptura". That is, there is no other source for propositional revelation other than the Bible.
Protestant Christianity is an "extremely book-bound form of religion" (Corduan, 57-58).
Protestant Christianity stands or falls by Scriptural assertions.
The Protestant fallacy is applying this "sola scriptura" mentality (which is appropriate for the Bible) to other religion's scriptures.
Judaism: The Deuterocanon as key to the Canon
The Protestant fallacy manifests itself when one assumes that to understand Judaism one must simply study the Old Testament.
This can lead to assertions like, "since the Jews no longer perform the ritual sacrifices they are required by their own scriptures, Judaism is internally incoherent".
The Scriptures of Judaism are identical with the Old Testament Canon of Christianity. These books are known in Judaism as the Tanak (TNK).
The Tanak is an acronym based on the Hebrew names of the three divisions of writings:
1) the Law - Torah
2) the Prophets - Nebiim
3) the Writings - Ketubim
When Jerusalem fell in A.D. 70 the Jews began writing down the interpretations of the Tanak which had been entirely oral before.
The Mishnah was produced around A.D. 500. Later, the Talmud was produced.
Since the production of the Talmud, all Judaism is Talmudic Judaism.
Orthodox Judaism holds that the Talmud, though not inspired, is expendable, but not revisable.
Other sects of Judaism, like Cabalistic movements accepted the Zohar as a supplement, but not a replacement, to the Talmud.
While the Tanak is the only Scripture in Judaism, all governance of life is done via the Talmud.
The Jewish Scriptures (for better or worse) must be interpreted through the lens of the Talmud.
Islam: The Qur'an as Event
The Qur'an is the compilation of what was revealed to Muhammad.
The Qur'an is merely excerpts from God's full book in heaven, the umm-al-kitub.
Muslims believe the Qur'an is as it is exactly as it was when it was revealed to Muhammad.
Despite its lofty place in Islam, the Qur'an was supplemented easy on by another book. The Hadith is a collection of the acts and sayings of Muhammad.
While the Hadith is not considered to be revealed like the Qur'an, it is nonetheless as binding as the Qur'an.
The value of the Qur'an within Islam has little to do with its content. The value lies in its very occurrence.
The Qur'an is utterly pristine, whereas other men's revelatory books like Moses' Law, David's Psalms and Jesus' Gospels while being products of revelation were distorted by their followers.
TO recognize the Qur'an is more important than to read it.
The Qur'an is not a human book at all; whereas, the Bible is wholly human and wholly divine.
Muslims believe that the Qur'an mediates God's presence into their lives.
Even in non-Arabic speaking countries the Qur'an is devoutly recited in Arabic. Recitation of the Qur'an is the most important function of the Qur'an in the Muslim community.
Zoroastrianism: A Ritual Accumulation
Similar to the Bible, the canon of Zoroastrianism is a collection of works spanning many centuries.
The Zoroastrianism Scripture is called the Avesta.
The oldest part of the Avesta is the Yasna, which contains hymns called the Gathas, some of which date back to Zoroaster (6th century B.C.).
The Videvdat is the newest part of the Avesta and dates from when Zoroastrianism was the State religion of Iran (A.D. 226 - 637).
The Avesta is not a great source for authoritative information about Zoroastrianism because the language is so impenetrable.
The language of the Gathas is called Avesta because it is simply so different from any other languages.
"One scholar of Iranian religion [H.S. Nybers] has maintained that the Gathas are so difficult to understand because they are intentional gibberish" (Corduan, 62).
Even in the Zoroastrian community, the Avesta is not supposed to be a source of information.
The Avesta is a ritual text used to recite as worship and purification.
Sikhism: A day in the Life of the Book
The Adi Granth is the Scripture of Sikhism.
Nanak (1469-1539) founded Sikhism as a way to bridge Hinduism and Islam. He taught that there is only one God whose nature lies beyond human reason and religious imagery.
Nanak was considered a holy guru by his followers. He was then followed by 9 other holy gurus, each seen as the embodiment of divine light.
Arjan Dev, the 5th Guru compiled all his and the previous gurus' chants and hymns into the Adi Granth.
Gobind Singh (1666-1708) the 10th and final guru, declared that there would be no more gurus and the Adi Granth would be the guru forever more.
From then on the book itself, which is displayed in the Golden Shrine of Amritsa has been recognized as true and binding by all Sikhs.
The Adi Granth is the very embodiment of God.
The Adi Granth functions in two ways:
1) It is the hymn book of the congregation
2) It is venerated as the holy guru.
The actual book is put to sleep in a bed at night and woken up and placed on an altar each morning.
"The basic function of the Adi Granth is an object of veneration, not as a record of revelation" (Corduan, 65).
Baha'i : A Canon Plus a Canon
Baha'i is a young religion founded by Baha'ullah.
Baha'ullah is considered to be a manifestation of God. He was the 9th manifestation after Abraham, Krishna, Moses, Zoroaster, Buddha, Jesus, Muhammad, the Bab and Baha'ullah.
Baha'ullah taught that all these other prophets had inspired writings and that his own writings complete the canon of world Scriptures for the time being.
The Baha'i Scriptures should be read in a similar fashion as the Protestant Christian Bible is, but the Baha'i Scriptures are paralleled by all the other 8 world Scriptures, whereas the Bible stands alone.
Hinduism: A Protean Canon
Eastern religions have sacred texts in a very different way then to Western religions, especially Christianity.
Hindu sacred texts are divided into two groups:
1) The Shruti
2) The Smriti
The Shruti are "seen", they were directly revealed to the semi-divine rishis of old who passed them down.
The Smriti are "heard", they are merely passed down as tradition only.
Shruti:
- Vedas
- Brahmanas
- Upanishads
Smriti:
- Ramayana
- Mahabharata
- Bhagavad Gita
The Smriti are epic poems and the deuterocanon, while the canon is the Vedic complex.
The distinction is much more ambiguous in reality then in theory.
Buddhism: Canon by Selection
Two major books:
1) Poli Canon
2) Lotus Sutra
The Poli Canon contains the Tripitaka (Three Baskets) and is the oldest Buddhist writings.
The Tripitaka is associated with the older, more traditional form of Buddhism, Theravada Buddhism.
The Lotus Sutra is associated with the more recent and more innovative form of Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism.
Chinese and Japanese Religions
Scriptures and Canon are not easily adapted for Far East Religions.
Religion/Scriptures
Daoism - The Doodejing & the Zhuangzi
Confucianism - The Analects
Shinto - The Kojiki, the Nihong and the Amatsu Narito
The Daodejing contains the wisdom of Lao Tzu, the founder of Daoism.
The Zhuangzi is a collection of anecdotal essays by the teacher Laozi (but probably not the same Laozi/Lao-Tzu)
The Analects is the teachings of Confucius.
The Kojiki is the official Japanese traditional myth. The Nihangi is a supplement to the Kojiki. The Amatsu Nihong is a book of standard prayers and rituals of Shinto.
The Singularity of the Christian Scriptures
The Christian Scriptures is different from all other Scriptures and all Scriptures are unique in their own way.
All Scriptures contain some truths, if truth is meant as that which corresponds to reality.
However, if truth is understood under the coherence theory of truth rather than the correspondence theory of truth then no religions can share truth because they will be truths from differing systems.
Cornelius van Til argued that even knowledge of a flower is different for a Christian and non-Christian. To the Christian, a flower is the creation of a personal God whereas it is a product of chance formation of matter to a non-Christian.
Other Scriptures also contain some wisdom. They also contain some religious truths.
That said, the Bible is sufficient. All we (as Christians) have is the Bible and all we need is the Bible.
There is no deuterocannon in Christianity.
Religious truths in other Scriptures can only be duplications of revealed truths in the Bible.
Other Scriptures do not contain special revelation. But other Scriptures can have a basis in general revelation.
Creation & Redemption in Western Traditions
(Originally written April 11, 2007 in Book 15)
Chapter 5 - Creation & Redemption
The need for redemption in Christianity did not arise from phenomenal existence (existence as material and finite being).
In some religions though redemption is needed precisely because we have a phenomenal existence.
Phenomenal existence implies a creation, but not all religions have a specific doctrine of creation where a god or gods created phenomenal existence.
No religion has a concept of redemption that is identical to Christianity's.
The Created Order: What went wrong and what went right:
There are two ways of viewing creation:
1) Creation as positive work
2) Creation as unfortunate work
In cases where creation is viewed as an unfortunate work, redemption is merely an escape from phenomenal existence (Eastern Tradition).
In cases where creation is viewed as a positive work, redemption deals with how phenomenal existence became defective (Western Tradition).
Western traditions view creation as good and pure phenomenal existence as good.
Islam has no original sin. All children are born innocent. Sin enters a person through volition.
As humans have left Allah by will so they can return to Allah by will.
In Judaism creation and phenomenal existence is good. There is no specific mechanism for salvation. There is no concept of Original Sin.
In Judaism, Jews must maintain all 613 commandments of the Torah as a witness to God for Gentiles.
Gentiles are not held to the strict standards of Judaism because they are not the chosen people.
In Zoroastrianism, one must aid God (Ahura Mazda) and repudiate Satan (Angro Mainyu or Ahriman).
Salvation depends purely on what a person does in response to Ahura Mazda.
In the end, the final prophet will come (Saoshyant) and the world will be engulfed as molten metal. The good will enjoy the experience, but the evil will be in immense pain. All will come out pristinely pure though.
Good physical existence was created by Ahura Mazda. Bad physical existence was created by Ahriman. Creation is not evil in this sense.
In summation, Western Religions teach creation is good by nature and that evil emerged via volitional misuse.
Chapter 5 - Creation & Redemption
The need for redemption in Christianity did not arise from phenomenal existence (existence as material and finite being).
In some religions though redemption is needed precisely because we have a phenomenal existence.
Phenomenal existence implies a creation, but not all religions have a specific doctrine of creation where a god or gods created phenomenal existence.
No religion has a concept of redemption that is identical to Christianity's.
The Created Order: What went wrong and what went right:
There are two ways of viewing creation:
1) Creation as positive work
2) Creation as unfortunate work
In cases where creation is viewed as an unfortunate work, redemption is merely an escape from phenomenal existence (Eastern Tradition).
In cases where creation is viewed as a positive work, redemption deals with how phenomenal existence became defective (Western Tradition).
Western traditions view creation as good and pure phenomenal existence as good.
Islam has no original sin. All children are born innocent. Sin enters a person through volition.
As humans have left Allah by will so they can return to Allah by will.
In Judaism creation and phenomenal existence is good. There is no specific mechanism for salvation. There is no concept of Original Sin.
In Judaism, Jews must maintain all 613 commandments of the Torah as a witness to God for Gentiles.
Gentiles are not held to the strict standards of Judaism because they are not the chosen people.
In Zoroastrianism, one must aid God (Ahura Mazda) and repudiate Satan (Angro Mainyu or Ahriman).
Salvation depends purely on what a person does in response to Ahura Mazda.
In the end, the final prophet will come (Saoshyant) and the world will be engulfed as molten metal. The good will enjoy the experience, but the evil will be in immense pain. All will come out pristinely pure though.
Good physical existence was created by Ahura Mazda. Bad physical existence was created by Ahriman. Creation is not evil in this sense.
In summation, Western Religions teach creation is good by nature and that evil emerged via volitional misuse.
Tuesday, April 10, 2007
Class notes on Salvation
(Originally written April 10, 2007 in Book 15)
(Test Thursday: 4/12/07)
Salvation: Different Concepts
Gandhi - "Religions are different roads converging to the same point".
Two main traditions:
1) Western
- Middle East Originated/Abrahamic
- Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Islam
- Problem: Our spiritual condition
2) Eastern
- Indic
- Subcontinent originated
- Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism,
- Problem: Our very existence (karma)
Christianity problem of salvation:
-Utter inability to restore a relationship with God (total depravity)
Islam: Test of Submission
-Life is a test to see how obedient we can be to Allah
The Hindu Dilemma
-Salvation is the escape from the never ending cycle of reincarnation (moksha)
How do you escape?
Vedantic Monism: Atman = Brahman
- Find how to become identical with God
Principles of Bhakti (Way of Devotion)
- Cling to one particular god to escape from the cycle of samsara
- This is not parallel to a holy God or a parallel to sin offending the god
3 Main Bhakti Sects
Vaishnavites - Worship of Vishnu or his avatars (incarnations) i.e. Krishna/Rama
Shaivites - Worship of Shiva
Shakti - Worship goddesses like Kali
Salvation from Rama, "Grace" in Hinduism
Monkey School: We must cling to Rama to achieve salvation
Cat School - Rama saves us apart from our works
Often when people refer to the "grace" of other religions they are using it to mean "mercy", not a synonymous term with the Christian concept of Grace.
Major Splits in Hinduism
Way of Works:
- Karma marga
- Brahminical Ritual
Way of Knowledge:
- Jñana Marga
- Vedanta
- Atman-Brahman
Way of Devotion:
- Bhakti Marga
Buddhist conception of salvation:
4 Noble Truths:
1) To live is to suffer
2) Suffering is caused by desire
3) To eliminate suffering one must eliminate desire
4) To eliminate desire one must follow the 8-fold path
- Right concentration
- Right View
- Right intention
- Right speech
- Right action (10 Precepts)
- Right livelihood
- Right effort
- Right meditation
Salvation is ultimately elimination of one's self
Pure Land Buddhism- conception of "grace"
"Jodo-Shin-Shu" aka Pure Land
- Worships the Buddha Amida
- Amdia became a buddha in Heaven (Dhyani Buddha)
- Buddha of the West
- Amida created a "pure land" for people who chant to him. Anyone who chants to him will be reborn in this pure land as a male so as to be closer to achieving nirvana.
Obviously, the Pure Land Buddhism's conception of grace is drastically different from Christianity's conception of Grace.
Jainism
Goal: to escape from the cycle of reincarnation and the elimination of karma.
Mahavira (6th Century B.C.) founded Jainism. His story is similar to the Buddha. Mahavira received enlightenment, but unlike the Buddha, retained his ascetic lifestyle.
Tirthankaras - teachers of Jainism
Mahavira was the last of the 24 Tirthankaras.
Two Main Divisions:
1) Shvetambara - "Clad in White"
2) Disambara - "Clad in atmosphere"
In the Shvetambara women are are eligible for salvation, but in the Disambara women are ineligible for salvation.
Karma: Jainism believes in individual souls (as opposed to Buddhism and Hinduism). This is the Jiva.
Jiva, left to itself would rise to the top of the universe. But, Karma adds physical Ajiva to the soul, weighing it down. Ajiva causes the soul to sink.
Salvation is the removing of Ajiva (dead matter) from one's soul.
The most important principle of Jainism is ahimsa.
Conclusion
Religions do not just have different ways of salvation, but their conceptions of salvation are very different.
(Test Thursday: 4/12/07)
Salvation: Different Concepts
Gandhi - "Religions are different roads converging to the same point".
Two main traditions:
1) Western
- Middle East Originated/Abrahamic
- Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Islam
- Problem: Our spiritual condition
2) Eastern
- Indic
- Subcontinent originated
- Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism,
- Problem: Our very existence (karma)
Christianity problem of salvation:
-Utter inability to restore a relationship with God (total depravity)
Islam: Test of Submission
-Life is a test to see how obedient we can be to Allah
The Hindu Dilemma
-Salvation is the escape from the never ending cycle of reincarnation (moksha)
How do you escape?
Vedantic Monism: Atman = Brahman
- Find how to become identical with God
Principles of Bhakti (Way of Devotion)
- Cling to one particular god to escape from the cycle of samsara
- This is not parallel to a holy God or a parallel to sin offending the god
3 Main Bhakti Sects
Vaishnavites - Worship of Vishnu or his avatars (incarnations) i.e. Krishna/Rama
Shaivites - Worship of Shiva
Shakti - Worship goddesses like Kali
Salvation from Rama, "Grace" in Hinduism
Monkey School: We must cling to Rama to achieve salvation
Cat School - Rama saves us apart from our works
Often when people refer to the "grace" of other religions they are using it to mean "mercy", not a synonymous term with the Christian concept of Grace.
Major Splits in Hinduism
Way of Works:
- Karma marga
- Brahminical Ritual
Way of Knowledge:
- Jñana Marga
- Vedanta
- Atman-Brahman
Way of Devotion:
- Bhakti Marga
Buddhist conception of salvation:
4 Noble Truths:
1) To live is to suffer
2) Suffering is caused by desire
3) To eliminate suffering one must eliminate desire
4) To eliminate desire one must follow the 8-fold path
- Right concentration
- Right View
- Right intention
- Right speech
- Right action (10 Precepts)
- Right livelihood
- Right effort
- Right meditation
Salvation is ultimately elimination of one's self
Pure Land Buddhism- conception of "grace"
"Jodo-Shin-Shu" aka Pure Land
- Worships the Buddha Amida
- Amdia became a buddha in Heaven (Dhyani Buddha)
- Buddha of the West
- Amida created a "pure land" for people who chant to him. Anyone who chants to him will be reborn in this pure land as a male so as to be closer to achieving nirvana.
Obviously, the Pure Land Buddhism's conception of grace is drastically different from Christianity's conception of Grace.
Jainism
Goal: to escape from the cycle of reincarnation and the elimination of karma.
Mahavira (6th Century B.C.) founded Jainism. His story is similar to the Buddha. Mahavira received enlightenment, but unlike the Buddha, retained his ascetic lifestyle.
Tirthankaras - teachers of Jainism
Mahavira was the last of the 24 Tirthankaras.
Two Main Divisions:
1) Shvetambara - "Clad in White"
2) Disambara - "Clad in atmosphere"
In the Shvetambara women are are eligible for salvation, but in the Disambara women are ineligible for salvation.
Karma: Jainism believes in individual souls (as opposed to Buddhism and Hinduism). This is the Jiva.
Jiva, left to itself would rise to the top of the universe. But, Karma adds physical Ajiva to the soul, weighing it down. Ajiva causes the soul to sink.
Salvation is the removing of Ajiva (dead matter) from one's soul.
The most important principle of Jainism is ahimsa.
Conclusion
Religions do not just have different ways of salvation, but their conceptions of salvation are very different.
Monday, March 26, 2007
Quick survey of world religions
(Originally Written March 26, 2007 in Book 15)
A Tapestry of Faiths
The Common Threads Between Christianity & World Religions
Winfried Corduan
Intervarsity Press: Downers Grove, IL. 2002
Chapter 1: Asking the right Questions
Insofar as Christianity is the religion that expresses the preeminence of Christ, Christianity alone is true and worthwhile.
The relationship between Christianity and other religions have many dimensions of similarity.
1. The Soteriological Dimension
2. The Content Dimension
There are many beliefs that Christianity shares with other religions.
3. The Revelatory Dimension
Many religions claim truth is grounded in revelation.
4. The Apologetic Dimension
5. The Moral Dimension
Most religions include a moral system and many areas resemble each other.
6. The Communication Dimension
A Very Brief History of Religion
Traditional/tribal religions in contrast to enscripturated religions:
Traditional religions are closely tied to their local culture.
Traditional religions tend to be animistic and ritualistic.
They recognize nature spirits and ancestor spirits. Frequently they recognize a high god in the sky.
Western Religions in contrast to Eastern Traditions
Western traditions are largely monotheistic like Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Islam and Baha'i.
Monotheistic Western Religions Normally have:
1. A strong monotheistic emphasis
2. A strong ethical emphasis
3. A positive approach to history. History is an unfolding of divine revelation and action.
Eastern religions are religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Daoism, Confucianism and Shinto.
Buddhism and Jainism are direct offshoots of Hinduism.
Eastern religions are more divers in belief than Western Religions.
3. Beliefs in Contrast to Cultus:
Cultus is the rituals, altars, hymns, temples, offerings and modes of prayer.
The relationship between a belief system and its cultus can be extremely elastic.
I. Judaism
Origin: Moses, 15th Century B.C.
Essential Beliefs and Practices:
- Monotheism
- obedience to a divinely revealed law
Scriptures:
- The Hebrew Scriptures
- Interpretations of the Scriptures (i.e. the Talmud)
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Orthodox
- Conservative
- Reform
II. Zoroastrianism
Origin: Zoroaster, 6th Century B.C.
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Monotheism
- Conflict between God (Ahura Mazda) and the evil Spirt (Angra Mainyu)
- Ethical purity
- Ritual cleanliness
Major Contemporary Division
- None
III. Christianity
Origin: Christ, 1st Century A.D.
Essential Beliefs and Practices:
- Trinitarian Monotheism
- Jesus as the Messiah
Scriptures:
- The Bible (Old and New Testaments)
Major Contemporary Divisions:
- Eastern Orthodox
- Roman Catholic
- Protestant
IV. Islam
Origin: Muhammad, (A.D. 570 - 632)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Monotheism
- Allah
- Judgment based on their obedience to God's requirement
Scriptures
- The Qu'ran
- Hadith
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Sunnite
- Shi'ites
V. Baha'i
Origin: Baha'ullah 19th Century
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Baha'ullah was the manifestation of God
- Unity of all religions
- New World Order
Scriptures:
- The writings of Baha'ullah
Major Contemporary Divisions
- None
VI. Hinduism
Origin: 1500 B.C., religion of the Aryans who invaded the Indian subcontinent
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Extremely diverse
- Samsara (reincarnation)
- Karma
Scriptures
- The Vedas
- The Ramayana
- The Mahabharata
- Brahmans
- Sutras
- Puranas
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Monastic Groups
- Bhakti (personalistic)
- Vaishnavitas
- Shaivites
- Shaktites
VII. Buddhism
Origin: Gautama Buddha (600 B.C.)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Salvation = deliverance from the reincarnation cycle
- Nirvana
Scriptures:
- The Tripitaka
- The Lotus Sutra
- Other sutras
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Theravada (Hinayana)
- Mahayana
- Zen
- Pure Land
- Soka Gakkai
- Tibetan
VIII. Jainism
Origin: Mahavira (600 BC)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Redemption by elimination of solid karma matter from one's soul
- Worship of the Tirthankaras
Scriptures
- The Agamas
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Digambaras
- Svetambaras
IX. Sikhism
Origin: Guru Nanak (16th Century A.D.)
Essential beliefs and Practices:
- There is one God who is represented on earth by the Holy Book the Adi Granth.
- Escape from the reincarnation cycle
Scriptures
- Adi Granth
Major Contemporary Divisions
- None
X. Daoism
Origins - Lao Zi (Lao-Tzu)
Essential beliefs and practices
- Yin & Yang
Scriptures
- Daodejing
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Daoism is interconnected with other religions, especially Buddhism and Confucianism
XI. Confucianism
Origins: Confucius (6th Century B.C.)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Ethical System
Scriptures
- Analects
Major Contemporary Divisions
- None
XII. Shinto
A Tapestry of Faiths
The Common Threads Between Christianity & World Religions
Winfried Corduan
Intervarsity Press: Downers Grove, IL. 2002
Chapter 1: Asking the right Questions
Insofar as Christianity is the religion that expresses the preeminence of Christ, Christianity alone is true and worthwhile.
The relationship between Christianity and other religions have many dimensions of similarity.
1. The Soteriological Dimension
2. The Content Dimension
There are many beliefs that Christianity shares with other religions.
3. The Revelatory Dimension
Many religions claim truth is grounded in revelation.
4. The Apologetic Dimension
5. The Moral Dimension
Most religions include a moral system and many areas resemble each other.
6. The Communication Dimension
A Very Brief History of Religion
Traditional/tribal religions in contrast to enscripturated religions:
Traditional religions are closely tied to their local culture.
Traditional religions tend to be animistic and ritualistic.
They recognize nature spirits and ancestor spirits. Frequently they recognize a high god in the sky.
Western Religions in contrast to Eastern Traditions
Western traditions are largely monotheistic like Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Islam and Baha'i.
Monotheistic Western Religions Normally have:
1. A strong monotheistic emphasis
2. A strong ethical emphasis
3. A positive approach to history. History is an unfolding of divine revelation and action.
Eastern religions are religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Daoism, Confucianism and Shinto.
Buddhism and Jainism are direct offshoots of Hinduism.
Eastern religions are more divers in belief than Western Religions.
3. Beliefs in Contrast to Cultus:
Cultus is the rituals, altars, hymns, temples, offerings and modes of prayer.
The relationship between a belief system and its cultus can be extremely elastic.
I. Judaism
Origin: Moses, 15th Century B.C.
Essential Beliefs and Practices:
- Monotheism
- obedience to a divinely revealed law
Scriptures:
- The Hebrew Scriptures
- Interpretations of the Scriptures (i.e. the Talmud)
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Orthodox
- Conservative
- Reform
II. Zoroastrianism
Origin: Zoroaster, 6th Century B.C.
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Monotheism
- Conflict between God (Ahura Mazda) and the evil Spirt (Angra Mainyu)
- Ethical purity
- Ritual cleanliness
Major Contemporary Division
- None
III. Christianity
Origin: Christ, 1st Century A.D.
Essential Beliefs and Practices:
- Trinitarian Monotheism
- Jesus as the Messiah
Scriptures:
- The Bible (Old and New Testaments)
Major Contemporary Divisions:
- Eastern Orthodox
- Roman Catholic
- Protestant
IV. Islam
Origin: Muhammad, (A.D. 570 - 632)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Monotheism
- Allah
- Judgment based on their obedience to God's requirement
Scriptures
- The Qu'ran
- Hadith
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Sunnite
- Shi'ites
V. Baha'i
Origin: Baha'ullah 19th Century
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Baha'ullah was the manifestation of God
- Unity of all religions
- New World Order
Scriptures:
- The writings of Baha'ullah
Major Contemporary Divisions
- None
VI. Hinduism
Origin: 1500 B.C., religion of the Aryans who invaded the Indian subcontinent
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Extremely diverse
- Samsara (reincarnation)
- Karma
Scriptures
- The Vedas
- The Ramayana
- The Mahabharata
- Brahmans
- Sutras
- Puranas
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Monastic Groups
- Bhakti (personalistic)
- Vaishnavitas
- Shaivites
- Shaktites
VII. Buddhism
Origin: Gautama Buddha (600 B.C.)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Salvation = deliverance from the reincarnation cycle
- Nirvana
Scriptures:
- The Tripitaka
- The Lotus Sutra
- Other sutras
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Theravada (Hinayana)
- Mahayana
- Zen
- Pure Land
- Soka Gakkai
- Tibetan
VIII. Jainism
Origin: Mahavira (600 BC)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Redemption by elimination of solid karma matter from one's soul
- Worship of the Tirthankaras
Scriptures
- The Agamas
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Digambaras
- Svetambaras
IX. Sikhism
Origin: Guru Nanak (16th Century A.D.)
Essential beliefs and Practices:
- There is one God who is represented on earth by the Holy Book the Adi Granth.
- Escape from the reincarnation cycle
Scriptures
- Adi Granth
Major Contemporary Divisions
- None
X. Daoism
Origins - Lao Zi (Lao-Tzu)
Essential beliefs and practices
- Yin & Yang
Scriptures
- Daodejing
Major Contemporary Divisions
- Daoism is interconnected with other religions, especially Buddhism and Confucianism
XI. Confucianism
Origins: Confucius (6th Century B.C.)
Essential Beliefs and Practices
- Ethical System
Scriptures
- Analects
Major Contemporary Divisions
- None
XII. Shinto
Friday, February 23, 2007
Chapter 12 - Pocket Guide to World Religions
(Originally written February 23, 2007 in Book 14)
Chapter 12 - Parsiism (Zoroastrianism)
Name
Zoroastrianism is named after its founder, Zoroaster, who lived in the 6th century BC.
Most of its adherents moved from Persia to India and became known as Parsis.
It was also called Mazdaism after their deity, Ahura Mazda.
Numbers and Distribution
There are only about 150,000 Parsis in the world and most of them live in Bombay, India.
Symbols
Parsiism's symbols go back to Ancient Persia.
The most common symbol is the fravahar. The fravahar is a winged man with many speculations as to its meanings. It could stand for Ahura Mazda, Zoroaster, the Persian kings, or most likely, every individual fravashi, their primordial soul.
History.
The prophet Zoroaster lived 273 years before Alexander according to ancient Parsi sources.
Zoroaster was a prophet who worshipped many gods called daevas.
When Zoroaster was 30 he had a vision that told him the daevas were not gods, but evil spirits. He learned there was one true God, Ahura Mazda ("Exalted Lord").
Zoroaster's teachings were rejected until he miraculously cured King Hystaspas' favorite horse.
After King Cyrus, the kings of the Persian empire followed Zoroaster's teachings until Alexander conquered the Persians. Zoroastrianism came back and flourished from 200-600 AD until the Muslims conquered them. From there they moved to India.
Scriptures
There are many scriptures, but most have been lost. The Avesta is the remaining important book.
The Avesta contains the life of Zoroaster, prayers, liturgy and incantations.
Major beliefs
There is a continual struggle between good and evil.
Ahura Mazda is truth and light.
Ahura Mazda express himself through his holy spirit and through 6 aspects of his personhood:
1) Good thought
2) Righteousness
3) Power
4) Perfection
5) Piety
6) Immortality
Ahriman is the opposite of Ahura Mazda. He is falsehood, unrighteousness and darkness.
The Persian gods are considered to be evil spirits who sway people to Ahriman's side.
Human beings must stay morally and ritually pure by not touching any human waste or dead persons.
Morally and ritually pure humans help Ahura Mazda triumph over Ahriman.
Subgroups
The Zoroastrians who remained in Persia after the Muslim conquest are called Gabars. Those who left for India are called Parsis. The differences are merely culturally, not religious.
Worship Practices
Worship serves to exalt Ahura Mazda and to ward off daevas.
The Avesta is chanted in services and a sacred flame is maintained. Priests drink a drink of sacred haoma plant.
Religious Buildings
Parsi temples are called 'fire-temples'.
Non-Zoroastrians are not allowed inside of temples because they have been persecuted for 1400 years.
Home practices
A Parsi home contains a small altar to burn incense and maintain a small sandalwood fire.
Zoroastrians must pray five times.
The Navjot is a coming-of-age ceremony for all Zoroastrian boys and girls. Children declare themselves to be Zoroastrians, repudiate daevas and wear the sacred shirt and belt.
Zoroastrians do not touch dead bodies, or pollute the ground with them or pollute fire by burning them. They allow them to deteriorate on elevated, circular platforms (towers of silence). Vultures eat the corpses.
Clothing
Paris wear an undergarment called a sudra and a belt called the kutsi belt.
The sudra has a pocket to collect each person's good deeds. The belt is white and is wrapped around the wearer three times.
Diet
None
Calendar
The Zoroastrian calendar is solar. 12 months of 30 days (plus 5 to keep with the West).
On the 6th day of the 1st month (either August or March, depending on Gabars or Parsis) they celebrate Zoroaster's birth.
Chapter 12 - Parsiism (Zoroastrianism)
Name
Zoroastrianism is named after its founder, Zoroaster, who lived in the 6th century BC.
Most of its adherents moved from Persia to India and became known as Parsis.
It was also called Mazdaism after their deity, Ahura Mazda.
Numbers and Distribution
There are only about 150,000 Parsis in the world and most of them live in Bombay, India.
Symbols
Parsiism's symbols go back to Ancient Persia.
The most common symbol is the fravahar. The fravahar is a winged man with many speculations as to its meanings. It could stand for Ahura Mazda, Zoroaster, the Persian kings, or most likely, every individual fravashi, their primordial soul.
History.
The prophet Zoroaster lived 273 years before Alexander according to ancient Parsi sources.
Zoroaster was a prophet who worshipped many gods called daevas.
When Zoroaster was 30 he had a vision that told him the daevas were not gods, but evil spirits. He learned there was one true God, Ahura Mazda ("Exalted Lord").
Zoroaster's teachings were rejected until he miraculously cured King Hystaspas' favorite horse.
After King Cyrus, the kings of the Persian empire followed Zoroaster's teachings until Alexander conquered the Persians. Zoroastrianism came back and flourished from 200-600 AD until the Muslims conquered them. From there they moved to India.
Scriptures
There are many scriptures, but most have been lost. The Avesta is the remaining important book.
The Avesta contains the life of Zoroaster, prayers, liturgy and incantations.
Major beliefs
There is a continual struggle between good and evil.
Ahura Mazda is truth and light.
Ahura Mazda express himself through his holy spirit and through 6 aspects of his personhood:
1) Good thought
2) Righteousness
3) Power
4) Perfection
5) Piety
6) Immortality
Ahriman is the opposite of Ahura Mazda. He is falsehood, unrighteousness and darkness.
The Persian gods are considered to be evil spirits who sway people to Ahriman's side.
Human beings must stay morally and ritually pure by not touching any human waste or dead persons.
Morally and ritually pure humans help Ahura Mazda triumph over Ahriman.
Subgroups
The Zoroastrians who remained in Persia after the Muslim conquest are called Gabars. Those who left for India are called Parsis. The differences are merely culturally, not religious.
Worship Practices
Worship serves to exalt Ahura Mazda and to ward off daevas.
The Avesta is chanted in services and a sacred flame is maintained. Priests drink a drink of sacred haoma plant.
Religious Buildings
Parsi temples are called 'fire-temples'.
Non-Zoroastrians are not allowed inside of temples because they have been persecuted for 1400 years.
Home practices
A Parsi home contains a small altar to burn incense and maintain a small sandalwood fire.
Zoroastrians must pray five times.
The Navjot is a coming-of-age ceremony for all Zoroastrian boys and girls. Children declare themselves to be Zoroastrians, repudiate daevas and wear the sacred shirt and belt.
Zoroastrians do not touch dead bodies, or pollute the ground with them or pollute fire by burning them. They allow them to deteriorate on elevated, circular platforms (towers of silence). Vultures eat the corpses.
Clothing
Paris wear an undergarment called a sudra and a belt called the kutsi belt.
The sudra has a pocket to collect each person's good deeds. The belt is white and is wrapped around the wearer three times.
Diet
None
Calendar
The Zoroastrian calendar is solar. 12 months of 30 days (plus 5 to keep with the West).
On the 6th day of the 1st month (either August or March, depending on Gabars or Parsis) they celebrate Zoroaster's birth.
Thursday, February 22, 2007
Class notes on Scriptures of Various Religions
(Originally written on February 22, 2007 in Book 14)
Class Notes - Christianity & Religious Pluralism
The "Protestant Fallacy"
The Bible & Other Scriptures
General Revelation --> Natural Theology
(accesible to all human beings)
Romans 1:18-20 - "The wrath of God is being revealed from heaven against all the godlessness and wickedness of people, who suppress the truth by their wickedness, since what may be known about God is plain to them, because God has made it plain to them. For since the creation of the world God's invisible qualities - his eternal power and divine nature - have been clearly seen, being understood from what has been made, so that people are without excuse."
Special Revelation
- Writings
- Jesus Christ
Protestant Fallacy -- to assume that the scriptures of other religions function in the same way as the Bible in Christianity.
The "protestant view" of Scriptures:
- inspired
- authoritative
- sola scriptura
- sufficient
- only guid to faith and practice
- no deterero - canon
- theoretically, all of what we believe and do so is based on the bible
- all other users (recitation, symbolisms) are secondary
Religion - "Canonical Scriptures" - Duetero-Canonical
Judaism - Tanakh (Law, Prophets, Writings) - Mishnah, Talmud
Islam - Koran - Sunna/Hadith
Zoroastrianism - Avesta - None
Hinduism - Vedas, Brahmanas, Sutras, Upanishads - Ramayana, Mahabharata
Judaism
-Tanak: Torah, Prophets, Writings
-Mishnah & Talmud - interpretations of the Tanak
The Talmud supersedes the Torah in practice
2 basic thoughts in Jewish belief in pre-Christ/time of Christ
1) Shamai - conservative
2) Hillel - liberal
Jesus' run-ins were more often with the Shamai followers.
Rabbi Gamaliel was another important thinker. The Apostle Paul was a follower of Gamaliel.
The Talmud is the combination of two works: the Mishna & the Gemara
Islam
The Qur'an
-Sunna, Hadith
The primary purpose of the Qur'an is to present the presence of Allah and to substantiate Muhammad's claims. To recite it is more important than to understand it.
Zoroastrianism
Avesta - consists of many parts, spanning centuries
Hinduism
Hindu Scriptures A
-Shruti "heard"
- The four Vedas
- Brahmanas
- Sutras
- Law of Manu
- Upanishads
Smriti
- Mahabharata
- Bhagavad Gita
- Ramayana
-Puranas
Class Notes - Christianity & Religious Pluralism
The "Protestant Fallacy"
The Bible & Other Scriptures
General Revelation --> Natural Theology
(accesible to all human beings)
Romans 1:18-20 - "The wrath of God is being revealed from heaven against all the godlessness and wickedness of people, who suppress the truth by their wickedness, since what may be known about God is plain to them, because God has made it plain to them. For since the creation of the world God's invisible qualities - his eternal power and divine nature - have been clearly seen, being understood from what has been made, so that people are without excuse."
Special Revelation
- Writings
- Jesus Christ
Protestant Fallacy -- to assume that the scriptures of other religions function in the same way as the Bible in Christianity.
The "protestant view" of Scriptures:
- inspired
- authoritative
- sola scriptura
- sufficient
- only guid to faith and practice
- no deterero - canon
- theoretically, all of what we believe and do so is based on the bible
- all other users (recitation, symbolisms) are secondary
Religion - "Canonical Scriptures" - Duetero-Canonical
Judaism - Tanakh (Law, Prophets, Writings) - Mishnah, Talmud
Islam - Koran - Sunna/Hadith
Zoroastrianism - Avesta - None
Hinduism - Vedas, Brahmanas, Sutras, Upanishads - Ramayana, Mahabharata
Judaism
-Tanak: Torah, Prophets, Writings
-Mishnah & Talmud - interpretations of the Tanak
The Talmud supersedes the Torah in practice
2 basic thoughts in Jewish belief in pre-Christ/time of Christ
1) Shamai - conservative
2) Hillel - liberal
Jesus' run-ins were more often with the Shamai followers.
Rabbi Gamaliel was another important thinker. The Apostle Paul was a follower of Gamaliel.
The Talmud is the combination of two works: the Mishna & the Gemara
Islam
The Qur'an
-Sunna, Hadith
The primary purpose of the Qur'an is to present the presence of Allah and to substantiate Muhammad's claims. To recite it is more important than to understand it.
Zoroastrianism
Avesta - consists of many parts, spanning centuries
Hinduism
Hindu Scriptures A
-Shruti "heard"
- The four Vedas
- Brahmanas
- Sutras
- Law of Manu
- Upanishads
Smriti
- Mahabharata
- Bhagavad Gita
- Ramayana
-Puranas
Saturday, July 29, 2006
The Eclipse of the Papacy
(Originally written July 29, 2006 in Book 5)
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Chapter XV - The Eclipse of the Papacy
The Christian 13th century was the culmination of Greek philosophy, Alexander's conquests and oriental religions.
Russell calls Satan "a development of Ahriman" (Russell, 476). Ahriman was an evil Persian God.
Linehan - Yes, Christianity incorporated a number of influences, but to state that it is wholly derivative is ridiculous. Also to not explicitly state the influence of ancient Judaism is wholly disgusting from a purely historical point of view... Russell does pay lip service to the Jewish element of Christianity. My apologies.
Russell believes that the switch from Plato to Aristotle may have been detrimental.
The Pope became a pawn of the French King.
The rise of a wealthy merchant class also took power from the papacy.
Cities became more independent from Pope and Emperor.
The decline of the papacy can be stated as the beginning with a plenary indulgence issued in the first jubilee year by Pope Boniface VIII.
The Avignon Papacy caused further independence form the Pope and weekend its power.
Pope Gregory XI returned the papacy to Rome. The French Cardinal's split form the Church causing the Great Schism. The Schism ended in 1417 with the council of Constance and the crowning of Pope Martin V.
John Wycliffe (1320-1384) shows the decline of Papal power. Wycliffe was a realist and a Platonist, but a scholastic nonetheless. He was orthodox until he was 50 then became heretical. The heresy became apparent in 1376 with the lectures at Oxford called "On Civil Dominion". His heresies were on property ownership. Eighteen theses of Wycliffe were condemned by Gregory XI. He was protected by the Queen and the mob of England from the Pope's summons. He translated the Vulgate into English and labeled the Pope as an anti-Christ. He denounced transubstantiation as a blasphemous folly. He got into more trouble when he did not condemn the Peasant's Revolt of 1381. He was excommunicated in 1366. His teachings were stamped out in England but reached Bohemia and Jan Hus. The Hussites paved the way for the Reformation.
End of Book 2
Linehan - I have lost a bit of respect for Russell in his treatment of Christianity. He labels many devout Christians as bigots, but his tactics are driven by bigotry. He is inconsistent and a great bigot himself. There have been a number of atrocities performed in the name of Christ, but how many atrocities have been performed in some other name? Christians ought to be held in a higher judgment, but atrocities performed in Christ's name discredits the performers and performances, not Christ.
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Chapter XV - The Eclipse of the Papacy
The Christian 13th century was the culmination of Greek philosophy, Alexander's conquests and oriental religions.
Russell calls Satan "a development of Ahriman" (Russell, 476). Ahriman was an evil Persian God.
Linehan - Yes, Christianity incorporated a number of influences, but to state that it is wholly derivative is ridiculous. Also to not explicitly state the influence of ancient Judaism is wholly disgusting from a purely historical point of view... Russell does pay lip service to the Jewish element of Christianity. My apologies.
Russell believes that the switch from Plato to Aristotle may have been detrimental.
The Pope became a pawn of the French King.
The rise of a wealthy merchant class also took power from the papacy.
Cities became more independent from Pope and Emperor.
The decline of the papacy can be stated as the beginning with a plenary indulgence issued in the first jubilee year by Pope Boniface VIII.
The Avignon Papacy caused further independence form the Pope and weekend its power.
Pope Gregory XI returned the papacy to Rome. The French Cardinal's split form the Church causing the Great Schism. The Schism ended in 1417 with the council of Constance and the crowning of Pope Martin V.
John Wycliffe (1320-1384) shows the decline of Papal power. Wycliffe was a realist and a Platonist, but a scholastic nonetheless. He was orthodox until he was 50 then became heretical. The heresy became apparent in 1376 with the lectures at Oxford called "On Civil Dominion". His heresies were on property ownership. Eighteen theses of Wycliffe were condemned by Gregory XI. He was protected by the Queen and the mob of England from the Pope's summons. He translated the Vulgate into English and labeled the Pope as an anti-Christ. He denounced transubstantiation as a blasphemous folly. He got into more trouble when he did not condemn the Peasant's Revolt of 1381. He was excommunicated in 1366. His teachings were stamped out in England but reached Bohemia and Jan Hus. The Hussites paved the way for the Reformation.
End of Book 2
Linehan - I have lost a bit of respect for Russell in his treatment of Christianity. He labels many devout Christians as bigots, but his tactics are driven by bigotry. He is inconsistent and a great bigot himself. There have been a number of atrocities performed in the name of Christ, but how many atrocities have been performed in some other name? Christians ought to be held in a higher judgment, but atrocities performed in Christ's name discredits the performers and performances, not Christ.
Sunday, July 16, 2006
Christianity during the first four centuries
(Originally written July 16, 2006 in Book 5)
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Chapter II - Christianity during the first four centuries
Christianity began as reformed Judaism.
Russell states that St. James and St. Peter wanted it to remain this, but St. Paul changed all that.
Gnosticism played the halfway between Pagan philosophy and Christianity by honoring Christ, but not the Jewish elements of Christianity. Later on Manichaeism played the same role. Manichaeism combined Christian and Zoroastrian elements. It believed evil was only in matter and good was only in spirit. It condemned the eating of meat and all sex.
Gnostics and Manichaeans flourished until the government became fully Christian.
Gnostic views (Docetic Gnosticism) passed over into orthodox Islam.
Christians became hostile to Jews early on. Jewish theology was simple. Christian theology became complex as it was hellenized. Christian theologians attempted to synthesize Greek thought and the Scriptures. It happened haphazardly until Origen.
Origen (185-254 AD) lived in Alexandria. Like his contemporary Plotinus, he was a puppy of Ammonius Saccas (the considered founder of Neoplatonism).
Origen stated nothing is fully incorporeal except God: Father, Son and Holy Ghost.
He believed the stars to contain souls and that the sun was capable of sin.
He believed in soul and nous like Plotinus did.
He believed that all souls were created initially at creation and entered bodies later in time. Ultimately all souls were destined to become nous and wholly submissive to Christ. Even the Devil will eventually submit to Christ.
In spite of being considered a Church Father, Origen was condemned for four heresies:
1) The Platonic view of souls being preexistent
2) The human nature of Christ, as well as the Divine nature existed prior to the Incarnation
3) At the resurrection man's bodies will be transformed into purely ethereal bodies
4) All men and even demons and Satan will eventually be saved.
Origen defended Christianity in two ways:
1) He stated that by using reason one necessarily comes to the conclusions spelled out in the Gospels.
2) The prophecies being fulfilled and the miracles being worked by Christ proved he is obviously God.
The Church government developed gradually over the years. Then it exploded as Christianity was legalized by Constantine the Great.
The bishops gained power through wealth prior to Constantine. Then when Christianity was legalized bishops were given administrative and judicial power by the State.
Russell's underhanded attack on Christianity compares Christian 'intolerance' to the "advantages of intolerance in propaganda" used by Hitler (Russell, 330).
Inconsistency? Russell calls the Jews stubborn to Greek influence, yet credits the Greeks with teaching the Jews resurrection of the spirit.
Christian morality was legendary before Constantine. "Their sexual ethics had a strictness that was rare in antiquity" (Russell, 332). This helped Christianity spread.
Constantine used the Christian underground hierarchy to stabilize the Empire. In doing so it spread Christianity. Constantine demanded unity in Christianity, hence the Nicea ecumenical council and the Nicene Creed.
Orthodox Christianity fought against heresies, like Arianism for a longtime.
Athanasius (297-373) was the champion of Orthodox Christianity.
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Chapter II - Christianity during the first four centuries
Christianity began as reformed Judaism.
Russell states that St. James and St. Peter wanted it to remain this, but St. Paul changed all that.
Gnosticism played the halfway between Pagan philosophy and Christianity by honoring Christ, but not the Jewish elements of Christianity. Later on Manichaeism played the same role. Manichaeism combined Christian and Zoroastrian elements. It believed evil was only in matter and good was only in spirit. It condemned the eating of meat and all sex.
Gnostics and Manichaeans flourished until the government became fully Christian.
Gnostic views (Docetic Gnosticism) passed over into orthodox Islam.
Christians became hostile to Jews early on. Jewish theology was simple. Christian theology became complex as it was hellenized. Christian theologians attempted to synthesize Greek thought and the Scriptures. It happened haphazardly until Origen.
Origen (185-254 AD) lived in Alexandria. Like his contemporary Plotinus, he was a puppy of Ammonius Saccas (the considered founder of Neoplatonism).
Origen stated nothing is fully incorporeal except God: Father, Son and Holy Ghost.
He believed the stars to contain souls and that the sun was capable of sin.
He believed in soul and nous like Plotinus did.
He believed that all souls were created initially at creation and entered bodies later in time. Ultimately all souls were destined to become nous and wholly submissive to Christ. Even the Devil will eventually submit to Christ.
In spite of being considered a Church Father, Origen was condemned for four heresies:
1) The Platonic view of souls being preexistent
2) The human nature of Christ, as well as the Divine nature existed prior to the Incarnation
3) At the resurrection man's bodies will be transformed into purely ethereal bodies
4) All men and even demons and Satan will eventually be saved.
Origen defended Christianity in two ways:
1) He stated that by using reason one necessarily comes to the conclusions spelled out in the Gospels.
2) The prophecies being fulfilled and the miracles being worked by Christ proved he is obviously God.
The Church government developed gradually over the years. Then it exploded as Christianity was legalized by Constantine the Great.
The bishops gained power through wealth prior to Constantine. Then when Christianity was legalized bishops were given administrative and judicial power by the State.
Russell's underhanded attack on Christianity compares Christian 'intolerance' to the "advantages of intolerance in propaganda" used by Hitler (Russell, 330).
Inconsistency? Russell calls the Jews stubborn to Greek influence, yet credits the Greeks with teaching the Jews resurrection of the spirit.
Christian morality was legendary before Constantine. "Their sexual ethics had a strictness that was rare in antiquity" (Russell, 332). This helped Christianity spread.
Constantine used the Christian underground hierarchy to stabilize the Empire. In doing so it spread Christianity. Constantine demanded unity in Christianity, hence the Nicea ecumenical council and the Nicene Creed.
Orthodox Christianity fought against heresies, like Arianism for a longtime.
Athanasius (297-373) was the champion of Orthodox Christianity.
Saturday, July 1, 2006
Bacchus & Orphics
(Originally Written July 1, 2006 in Book 2)
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
1974
Commerce initially arose as piracy.
Writing came to the Greeks via piracy and commerce. It came from the Phoenicians (whose alphabet was derivative of Egypt). Greeks added vowels to the Phoenician alphabet. Writing quickened the rise of Ancient Greece.
Homer was the first product of Greece of real merit. He became a staple of Greek learning in Athens and later, all of Greece.
Homer's writings showed the best of Greek religion (the gods of Olympus), but more savage religious cults lay in wait throughout Ancient Greece, coming out in times of weakness and terror.
Primitive religion was tribal, not personal.
Homer's gods were very human, his religion, not very religious. These gods were as or less moral than men.
Fate, necessity and destiny were the objects of utmost power in Homeric religion. Even Zeus was subject to them.
The Olympian gods were never said to create the world, only to subdue and conquer it.
Homer's heroes (men) were as unbehaving as the swashbuckling gods who ruled with indifference to humanity.
When the Homeric epics took their present form, in the late 6th century BC, science, philosophy and mathematics were being born in Greece. Confucius, Buddha and Zoroaster lived in this century (allegedly). Cyrus established Persia in the 6th century as well.
The Philosophers endured to escape Persian domination, spreading the enlightened Greek civilization to the Hellenic world.
While Greece eventually fought off the Persians only a few cities advanced all the independent Greek city-states:
1. Sparta - military
2. Corinth - commerce & wealth
3. Arcadia - agriculture
Arcadia was supposedly an idyllic paradise, but it was truly ghastly in their barbaric ways.
1. The bull was too expensive in fertility cults, so the goat replaced it.
2. A clan of self-proclaimed werewolves terrorized with human sacrifice and cannibalism
3. Even Zeus was portrayed as a werewolf: Zeus Lykaios.
Superstition reigned in Arcadia and flourished throughout ancient times.
Religion, as we now perceive it, was not connected to the Olympic gods but to Dionysus or Bacchus. Bacchus was the god of wine and drunkenness. Bacchus originated as a fertility god of Thrace. When the Thracians invented beer they perceived intoxication as divine and attributed it to Bacchus. When wine was invented later, the Thracians loved Bacchus even more.
The cult of Bacchus was not received well by the orthodox of Greece, but was nonetheless established.
Bacchus worship involved ecstasy, brought about by intoxication; partly due to alcohol, but mainly due to mystic frenzy. It was both beautiful and savage.
Greece gravitated to the primitive and instinctive nature of Bacchus that freed them from strict Greek morality.
"The civilized man is distinguished from the savage mainly by prudence, or, to use a slightly wider term, forethought" (Russell, 15).
Foresight is working for benefits later and not being controlled by impulses. Impulses are checked by civilization via foresight (self-check), religion, law and custom.
Private property brought about the subjection of women and the creation of a slave class.
Prudence involves sacrificing the present to the future without extremeness. Prudence can easily destroy some of the best things in life.
Bacchus worship is a complete rejection of prudence. Intoxication (physical or spiritual) recovers intensity destroyed by prudence. The world is beautiful and full of delight and the imagination is free from the prison of prudence.
Bacchic rituals produced enthusiasm, which etymologically means "having the god enter into the worshipper, who believed that he became one with the god" (Russell, 16).
Most achievements of men include some form of Bacchic practice of passions overrunning prudence. Bacchus worship is dangerous to life, yet it makes life interesting.
Sober civilization is akin to science. Science itself is dull and not satisfying. Man needs art, passion and religion. Science sets limit on knowledge, not on imagination.
Greek philosophy produced both scientific philosophers and religious philosophers. Plato and Christianity (via Neo-Platonism) fall into the latter category.
The ancient religion of Bacchus was barbaric and repulsive. The form that influenced philosophy was ascetic as it replaced physical intoxication with a mental form. It was spiritualized by Orpheus.
Orpheus is believed to have come from Crete. Egypt influenced Crete, Crete then Greece. Egyptian influence in Greece came indirectly via Crete. Orpheus was a priest/philosopher.
Orpheus is not well-known or certain to have existed, but the religion bearing his name certainly did: the Orphics.
The Orphics believed in:
1) The Transmigration of souls
2) that the soul may receive eternal bliss, temporary punishment or eternal punishment based on one's earthly life
3) purification rituals
4) man was partly of earth, partly of heaven
5) Through purification a man can become one with Bacchus
Orphic tablets gave instructions for the after-life to the dead.
Orphics were ascetic
They sought intoxication solely through enthusiasm.
The Cult of Bacchus was reformed by Orpheous, the Orphic religion by Pythagoras, Pythagoras by Plato and most religious philosophy has incorporated Plato.
Bacchic elements are everywhere in Greek culture:
1) Pythagoras & Plato - feminism
2) Greek Tragedies - pure emotional instictiveness
3) Euripides
4) Athens - The Eleusinian Mysteries
To the Orphic, life is pain and weariness. Their true life was in the stars, but they were bound to the earth. This cycle was ceaseless. The only hope of escape was through purification via asceticism.
A large portion of the Greeks were "passionate, unhappy, at war with themselves, driven along one road by the intellect and along another by the passions, with the imagination to conceive heaven and the willful self-assertion that creates hell" (Russell, 23).
Religious Greeks embraced Orphic religion; rational Greeks despised it.
Russell then goes on to condemn not only Ancient Greek religion, but religion itself: "It looked as if Greek religion were about to enter on the same stage as that already reached by the religions of the East; and, but for the rise of science, it is hard to see what could have checked this tendency. It is usual to say that the Greeks were saved from a religion of the Oriental type by their having no priesthood; but this is to mistake the effect for the cause. Priesthoods do not make dogmas, though they preserve them once they are made; an in the earlier stages of their development, the Oriental peoples had no priesthoods either in the sense intended. It was not so much the absence of a priesthood as the existence of the scientific schools that saved Greece" (Russell, 23).
The Orphics founded 'churches'. The Olympic cults did not. It was the founding of 'churches' that influenced the conception of philosophy as a way of life.
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
1974
Commerce initially arose as piracy.
Writing came to the Greeks via piracy and commerce. It came from the Phoenicians (whose alphabet was derivative of Egypt). Greeks added vowels to the Phoenician alphabet. Writing quickened the rise of Ancient Greece.
Homer was the first product of Greece of real merit. He became a staple of Greek learning in Athens and later, all of Greece.
Homer's writings showed the best of Greek religion (the gods of Olympus), but more savage religious cults lay in wait throughout Ancient Greece, coming out in times of weakness and terror.
Primitive religion was tribal, not personal.
Homer's gods were very human, his religion, not very religious. These gods were as or less moral than men.
Fate, necessity and destiny were the objects of utmost power in Homeric religion. Even Zeus was subject to them.
The Olympian gods were never said to create the world, only to subdue and conquer it.
Homer's heroes (men) were as unbehaving as the swashbuckling gods who ruled with indifference to humanity.
When the Homeric epics took their present form, in the late 6th century BC, science, philosophy and mathematics were being born in Greece. Confucius, Buddha and Zoroaster lived in this century (allegedly). Cyrus established Persia in the 6th century as well.
The Philosophers endured to escape Persian domination, spreading the enlightened Greek civilization to the Hellenic world.
While Greece eventually fought off the Persians only a few cities advanced all the independent Greek city-states:
1. Sparta - military
2. Corinth - commerce & wealth
3. Arcadia - agriculture
Arcadia was supposedly an idyllic paradise, but it was truly ghastly in their barbaric ways.
1. The bull was too expensive in fertility cults, so the goat replaced it.
2. A clan of self-proclaimed werewolves terrorized with human sacrifice and cannibalism
3. Even Zeus was portrayed as a werewolf: Zeus Lykaios.
Superstition reigned in Arcadia and flourished throughout ancient times.
Religion, as we now perceive it, was not connected to the Olympic gods but to Dionysus or Bacchus. Bacchus was the god of wine and drunkenness. Bacchus originated as a fertility god of Thrace. When the Thracians invented beer they perceived intoxication as divine and attributed it to Bacchus. When wine was invented later, the Thracians loved Bacchus even more.
The cult of Bacchus was not received well by the orthodox of Greece, but was nonetheless established.
Bacchus worship involved ecstasy, brought about by intoxication; partly due to alcohol, but mainly due to mystic frenzy. It was both beautiful and savage.
Greece gravitated to the primitive and instinctive nature of Bacchus that freed them from strict Greek morality.
"The civilized man is distinguished from the savage mainly by prudence, or, to use a slightly wider term, forethought" (Russell, 15).
Foresight is working for benefits later and not being controlled by impulses. Impulses are checked by civilization via foresight (self-check), religion, law and custom.
Private property brought about the subjection of women and the creation of a slave class.
Prudence involves sacrificing the present to the future without extremeness. Prudence can easily destroy some of the best things in life.
Bacchus worship is a complete rejection of prudence. Intoxication (physical or spiritual) recovers intensity destroyed by prudence. The world is beautiful and full of delight and the imagination is free from the prison of prudence.
Bacchic rituals produced enthusiasm, which etymologically means "having the god enter into the worshipper, who believed that he became one with the god" (Russell, 16).
Most achievements of men include some form of Bacchic practice of passions overrunning prudence. Bacchus worship is dangerous to life, yet it makes life interesting.
Sober civilization is akin to science. Science itself is dull and not satisfying. Man needs art, passion and religion. Science sets limit on knowledge, not on imagination.
Greek philosophy produced both scientific philosophers and religious philosophers. Plato and Christianity (via Neo-Platonism) fall into the latter category.
The ancient religion of Bacchus was barbaric and repulsive. The form that influenced philosophy was ascetic as it replaced physical intoxication with a mental form. It was spiritualized by Orpheus.
Orpheus is believed to have come from Crete. Egypt influenced Crete, Crete then Greece. Egyptian influence in Greece came indirectly via Crete. Orpheus was a priest/philosopher.
Orpheus is not well-known or certain to have existed, but the religion bearing his name certainly did: the Orphics.
The Orphics believed in:
1) The Transmigration of souls
2) that the soul may receive eternal bliss, temporary punishment or eternal punishment based on one's earthly life
3) purification rituals
4) man was partly of earth, partly of heaven
5) Through purification a man can become one with Bacchus
Orphic tablets gave instructions for the after-life to the dead.
Orphics were ascetic
They sought intoxication solely through enthusiasm.
The Cult of Bacchus was reformed by Orpheous, the Orphic religion by Pythagoras, Pythagoras by Plato and most religious philosophy has incorporated Plato.
Bacchic elements are everywhere in Greek culture:
1) Pythagoras & Plato - feminism
2) Greek Tragedies - pure emotional instictiveness
3) Euripides
4) Athens - The Eleusinian Mysteries
To the Orphic, life is pain and weariness. Their true life was in the stars, but they were bound to the earth. This cycle was ceaseless. The only hope of escape was through purification via asceticism.
A large portion of the Greeks were "passionate, unhappy, at war with themselves, driven along one road by the intellect and along another by the passions, with the imagination to conceive heaven and the willful self-assertion that creates hell" (Russell, 23).
Religious Greeks embraced Orphic religion; rational Greeks despised it.
Russell then goes on to condemn not only Ancient Greek religion, but religion itself: "It looked as if Greek religion were about to enter on the same stage as that already reached by the religions of the East; and, but for the rise of science, it is hard to see what could have checked this tendency. It is usual to say that the Greeks were saved from a religion of the Oriental type by their having no priesthood; but this is to mistake the effect for the cause. Priesthoods do not make dogmas, though they preserve them once they are made; an in the earlier stages of their development, the Oriental peoples had no priesthoods either in the sense intended. It was not so much the absence of a priesthood as the existence of the scientific schools that saved Greece" (Russell, 23).
The Orphics founded 'churches'. The Olympic cults did not. It was the founding of 'churches' that influenced the conception of philosophy as a way of life.
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