Plotinus

(Originally Written July 16, 2006 in Book 4)

The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell

Chapter 30 - Plotinus

Plotinus (204-270 A.D.) founded Neoplatonism and was the last great philosopher of antiquity.

He lived during one of the most unstable periods of the Roman Empire. After he died the Empire was stabilized by the efforts of Diocletian and Constantine the Great.

He turned from the perpetual strife of the physical world and his philosophy was based on an other-worldly religious tone.

He believed in an eternal world of ideas as his heaven.

Christians adapted much of Plotinus' work into their theology.

Augustine believed that if Plotinus had lived later and changed a few words and phrases he would have been a Christian.

Dean Inge states that Aquinas "is nearer to Plotinus than to the real Aristotle" (Russell, 285).

Plotinus is pivotal to the influence of Middle Ages' Christianity and Catholic theology.

Russell's Caveat: Christianity has undergone many changes. It cannot be viewed as a homogenous system:
1) Synoptic Gospels are innocent of metaphysics.
2) American Christianity (modern) is akin to primitive Christianity.

Platonism is alien to modern American Christianity as American Christianity is much more concerned with life on earth and social progress. Platonic Christianity focuses on transcendental hope in a hopeless everyday world. It is not a dogmatic change, but a shift in emphasis. Without understanding this change, no one will understand the Christianity of the past.

In addition to his historical importance, Plotinus is the best representative of an important type of theory. A philosophical system can be judged on various criteria:

1) The first and most obvious is its truth
2) Beauty
3) Well expressed as how men will act in certain situations

Plotinus was a 'melancholy optimist'.

Plotinus is the best representation of a metaphysical theory born out of a resolve in the face of horrible physical circumstances.

"Among the men who have been unhappy in a mundane sense, but resolutely determined to find a higher happiness in the world of theory, Plotinus holds a very high place" (Russell, 286).

Plotinus clarified Plato's teachings. His arguments against materialism are good and his theory of the relation of soul and body is clearer than Plato or Aristotle.

His moral purity is impressive (like Spinoza's).

He explains things as clearly, consistently and simply as he can.

"Whatever one may think of him as a theoretical philosopher, it is impossible not to love him as a man" (Russell, 286).

Linehan - I hope that one day I will be thought of in a similar manner. Above all philosophy, humanity is by far more important. Theory cannot substitute for a man or woman.

Plotinus' life is known through the writings of Porphyry (a semite whose real name is Malchus).

He discovered patio-temporal appearance as being important.

Plotinus was born in Egypt, studied in Alexandria and studied under Ammonius Saccos (considered to be a founder of Neoplatonism).

He didn't write until he was 49, but then wrote voluminously. Porphyry edited his works. Porphyry was more Pythagorean than Plotinus and thus Neoplatonism became more supernatural than it would have if Plotinus' ideas had not been edited.

Plotinus treated the ancient philosophers with reverence, except for the atomists. He condemns the Stoics for their materialism and the Epicureans for every part of their philosophy. The influence of Parmenides is felt at a number of points.

The Plato in Plotinus' works is much better behaved then the Plato of real life.

The metaphysical of Plotinus begins with a holy trinity:
1) The One (supreme)
2) Spirit *Nous (intermediate)
3) Soul (lowest)

Unlike Christianity's Holy Trinity, the three are not equals.

The One is transcendent of all things. it is indefinable. "In regard to the One there is more truth in silence than in any words whatever" (Russell, 288).

The Spirit is what Plotinus calls 'nous'. Nous is normally translated as mind, but it does not suit here because it lacks the spiritual, religious intention that it had in the Greek language. Nous is the image of the One. Men understand this (as best they can) when they strip the body and self-will from their minds and reflect on the Nous.

Man reflects on the nous by cutting away everything else. Then reflection on the nous we see the light that shines on it and that light is shone by and is the One. Thus reflection on the Nous is reflection on the One itself.

Plotinus often experience ecstasy as an out of body experience.

The soul is inferior to the nous. But the soul is the author of all living things. It made the whole visible world.

Plotinus rejected the Gnostic view that the world (sensible) was evil, instead believing that it was merely less good than the intellectual world.

He rejected the Gnostic view of all things being evil other than man's soul. His arguments were later adopted by the theologian Origen.

He believed in reincarnation for the sake of justice. For example, if you killed your mother you would come back as a woman and be killed by your son.

Sin had to be punished, but it was punished naturally.

If sin is purged in life, eventually the soul and nous would become one, but still two.

Plotinus rejected Aristotle's claim that the soul is the form of the body. He also rejected the Stoic view as the soul being material in nature.

The soul entered the physical realm because it wished to create (replicate) something it saw in the nous. Since they are replications they are not as perfect, but genuinely still good.

The soul lives in union with other souls in the nous, but when it severs itself to create bodies it runs into trouble because it is now in contact with something lower than itself, a body. The soul unwittingly becomes chained to the body.

The physical world is a copy of the eternal world and the best that it could be.

Like Christians, Plotinus has trouble with creation happening without demanding something was lacking in the Creator which caused him to create.

Plotinus believed sin to be a consequence of free will.

He champions free will and without invalidating astrology, set bounds for it.

Plotinus' subjectivism (reflection via introspection) helped to stall outward inspection and ended scientific advancement for centuries.

As I come to the end of another book I can truly state that my philosophical progress is apparent to myself. I say this without meaning to appear arrogant but it is obvious to me. I am starting to make connections I previously did not make. Critical thought and questions are coming more rapidly.

I feel more comprehension of material. I don't have to reread passages to understand them as often. I am really starting to form concrete theories and opinions in my mind. I am enjoying myself more and more.

I don't have much more to say other than that I am excited to continue Russell's book. This notebook ended exactly as Book One of the History of Western Philosophy ended. That was nice. It will continue in notebook 5, page 1 with Book Two - "Catholic Philosophy".

Book 4 02/01/06 - 07/16/06

Chris Linehan