The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Chapter X: Mohammedan Culture and Philosophy
The Hegira took place in 622. Syria was invaded and conquered by 636. By 650 Persia was conquered. India was invaded in 664. Egypt was conquered in 642. Carthage in 697. Spain was conquered by 712. But at the battle of Tours in 732 the Western expansion of Islam (outside of Sicily and Italy) was halted.
Islam began as a simple monotheism, a revival against graven images and a duty-bound ideal to conquer the world.
The various sects of Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians living under the conquest of the Arabs were free to practice their religion if they paid a fee. "The populations, moreover, in order to escape the tribute, very largely abandoned Christianity for Islam" (Russell, 421).
The Arabs were primarily concerned with conquest and plunder. Because wealth was their primary concern and not religion, they were able to rule a large territory of people that didn't share the same religion as their rulers. "The Persians, on the contrary, have been, from the earliest times, deeply religious and highly speculative. After their conversion, they made out of Islam something much more interesting, more religious, and more philosophical, than had been imagined by the Prophet and his kinsmen" (Russell, 421).
The Sunni and Shiah split right after the death of the Prophet. The Persians, who became Shiah, helped overthrow the first Islamic rulers, the Umayyad dynasty in the middle of the 8th century.
The Abbasids who replaced the Umayyads were much more fanatical in their adherence to doctrine.
Trade was essential in the Islamic world and the trader was venerated because Mohammed had been a trader.
"The distinctive culture of the Muslim world, though it began in Syria, soon came to flourish most
in the Eastern and Western extremities, Persia and Spain" (Russell, 423).
Kindi was the first to write philosophy in Arabic. The Persians were heavily influenced by India. Firdousi, (Ferdowsi) the author of Shahnama comes from this tradition and is regarded as to be the equal of Homer.
Avicenna (Ibn Sina) was born in Bukhara (Modern Uzbekistan) in 980 and lived until 1037. His philosophy is more Aristotelian and less Neoplatonic than his Muslim predecesssors.
Averroes (Ibn Rushd) was born in Cordova and lived from 1126-1198. Averroes was often seen as a heretic and after the Reconquista Islamic philosophy stopped being speculative. In Spain because of the Christian encroachment and in the rest of the Islamic world because a rigid orthodoxy became the norm.
"Averroes, like most of the later Mohammedan philosophers, though a believer, was not rigidly
orthodox. There was a sect of completely orthodox theologians, who objected to all philosophy as
deleterious to the faith. One of these, named Algazel, wrote a book called Destruction of the
Philosophers, pointing out that, since all necessary truth is in the Koran, there is no need of
speculation independent of revelation. Averroes replied by a book called Destruction of the
Destruction. The religious dogmas that Algazel specially upheld against the philosophers were the
creation of the world in time out of nothing, the reality of the divine attributes, and the
resurrection of the body. Averroes regards religion as containing philosophic truth in allegorical
form." (Russell, 426).
Maimonides, the important Spanish Jewish philosopher spent most of his life in Cairo. He reconciled Aristotle with Jewish theology and believed that "philosophy and revelation come together in the knowledge of God. The pursuit of truth is a religious duty" (Russell, 427).
The Jews considered Maimonides to be a heretic and even enlisted the Christian ecclesiastical apparatus to persecute him.
Showing posts with label Al-Kindi. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Al-Kindi. Show all posts
Saturday, September 28, 2019
Tuesday, July 25, 2006
Mohammedan Culture B
(Originally written July 25, 2006 in Book 5)
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Chapter X - Mohammedan Culture
The Muslim Empire gradually split into four main factions:
1) Spain
2) Persia
3) N. Africa
4) Egypt
All these four were basically independent of one another.
The Arabs preferred Aristotle to Plato, but it was a sort of Platonic Aristotle.
Al-Kindi (died ca. 873) was the first philosopher to write in Arabic.
Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi translated Indian Sanskrit astronomy and mathematical books into Arabic around 830. It was translated into Latin in the 11th century along with an algebra book he wrote. This is when the West learned Arabic numerals. (But since the Arabians adopted them from India they ought to have been labeled Indian numerals).
Omar Ahayyám reformed the calendar in 1079. He was a Persian poet and mathematician. The Persians were great poets.
Firdowsi (941) wrote Shahlnama and is said to be an equal of Homer.
Persians were also superior mystics to the rest of the Mohammedans. The Sufi sect (still existent) came from Persian mystic interpretation of the Koran in a mystical, Neoplatonic way.
Greek influenced entered the Muslim world through the Syrain Nestorians. The Nestorians only valued Aristotle for his logic.
Arabic philosophers placed logic as the highest point and importance, but gradually accepted Aristotelian metaphysics.
Arabic philosophers were primarily concerned with:
1) Alchemy
2) Astrology
3) Astronomy
4) Zoology
Philosophers were looked on suspiciously by the bigoted public Arabs.
Avicenna (Ibn Sina) lived from 980 -1037 and traveled extensively, finally settling in Tehran. He taught philosophy and medicine. His medicine techniques were used widespread in Europe from the 12th - 17th century. He was not a saint, easily entrapped by wine and women. He was not favored in the East because of the Orthodoxy but the West admired him and his work. His psychology was empirical of a sort. His philosophy was closer to Aristotle and less Platonic than his Muslim predecessors.
He was concerned with the problem of universals. He believed that universals were at the same time:
1) before things
2) in things
3) after things
They are before in God's understanding. They are in things when particulars exist. They are after things in the thoughts of man.
Averroes (Ibn Rushd) lived from 1126-1198. He was born in Cordova, Spain. he was a Cadi in Seville and then in Cordova. He studied theology, jurisprudence, medicine, mathematics and philosophy (in that order). He practiced medicine for the Spanish ruler but was exiled by the ruler's son for "cultivating the philosophy of the ancients at the expense of the true faith" (Russell, 425). He was exiled to Morocco.
The books of logic and metaphysics were burnt because the Orthodox Muslims believed that God damned men for believing truth could be found through undirected reason.
After the death of Averroes the Moorish territory in Spain was diminished by Christian conquests.
Aver roes sought to purge the Arabic understanding of Aristotle of the Neoplatonic influence. He believed that the existence of God could be proved without divine revelation.
Like most Mohammedan philosophers, Averroes was a believer, but not Orthodox.
A sect of completely orthodox theologians condemned all philosophical thought outright. Algazel pointed out that all Truth necessary was to be found in the Koran, so speculation was unnecessary.
Averroes believed religion was a wealth of philosophical truth displayed in allegorical form.
Averroes is more important in Christian philosophy than in Islamic.
Despite writing in the 12th century, he was surprisingly translated into Latin in the 13th century, very quick for that age.
Arabic philosophy was not original; philosophers were more like commentators.
Between ancient Europe and Modern Europe the Dark Ages virtually killed intellectualism in Europe. The Byzantines and Arabs, while not innovators, preserved the ancient philosophy and learning which served as the foundation for modern thought.
The integration of Arabic thought into Europe produced scholasticism in the 13th century. The integration of Byzantine thought (and other causes) produced the Renaissance in the 15th century.
The Jews served as a go between between the Christians and the Spanish Moors. Knowing both Arabic and Latin, they supplied translations.
The Spanish Jews produced one important philosopher: Maimonides. Maimonides was born in Cordova in 1135. He went to Cairo in 1165 and lived out his life there. He wrote in Arabic, which was immediately translated into Hebrew and translated into Latin a few decades after his death. He wrote a book called Guide to Wanderers which was a book for philosophers who lost their faith. The book reconciled Aristotelianism to Judaism. The Jews hated Maimonides and elicited the Christian ecclesiastics to stop him.
The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell
Chapter X - Mohammedan Culture
The Muslim Empire gradually split into four main factions:
1) Spain
2) Persia
3) N. Africa
4) Egypt
All these four were basically independent of one another.
The Arabs preferred Aristotle to Plato, but it was a sort of Platonic Aristotle.
Al-Kindi (died ca. 873) was the first philosopher to write in Arabic.
Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi translated Indian Sanskrit astronomy and mathematical books into Arabic around 830. It was translated into Latin in the 11th century along with an algebra book he wrote. This is when the West learned Arabic numerals. (But since the Arabians adopted them from India they ought to have been labeled Indian numerals).
Omar Ahayyám reformed the calendar in 1079. He was a Persian poet and mathematician. The Persians were great poets.
Firdowsi (941) wrote Shahlnama and is said to be an equal of Homer.
Persians were also superior mystics to the rest of the Mohammedans. The Sufi sect (still existent) came from Persian mystic interpretation of the Koran in a mystical, Neoplatonic way.
Greek influenced entered the Muslim world through the Syrain Nestorians. The Nestorians only valued Aristotle for his logic.
Arabic philosophers placed logic as the highest point and importance, but gradually accepted Aristotelian metaphysics.
Arabic philosophers were primarily concerned with:
1) Alchemy
2) Astrology
3) Astronomy
4) Zoology
Philosophers were looked on suspiciously by the bigoted public Arabs.
Avicenna (Ibn Sina) lived from 980 -1037 and traveled extensively, finally settling in Tehran. He taught philosophy and medicine. His medicine techniques were used widespread in Europe from the 12th - 17th century. He was not a saint, easily entrapped by wine and women. He was not favored in the East because of the Orthodoxy but the West admired him and his work. His psychology was empirical of a sort. His philosophy was closer to Aristotle and less Platonic than his Muslim predecessors.
He was concerned with the problem of universals. He believed that universals were at the same time:
1) before things
2) in things
3) after things
They are before in God's understanding. They are in things when particulars exist. They are after things in the thoughts of man.
Averroes (Ibn Rushd) lived from 1126-1198. He was born in Cordova, Spain. he was a Cadi in Seville and then in Cordova. He studied theology, jurisprudence, medicine, mathematics and philosophy (in that order). He practiced medicine for the Spanish ruler but was exiled by the ruler's son for "cultivating the philosophy of the ancients at the expense of the true faith" (Russell, 425). He was exiled to Morocco.
The books of logic and metaphysics were burnt because the Orthodox Muslims believed that God damned men for believing truth could be found through undirected reason.
After the death of Averroes the Moorish territory in Spain was diminished by Christian conquests.
Aver roes sought to purge the Arabic understanding of Aristotle of the Neoplatonic influence. He believed that the existence of God could be proved without divine revelation.
Like most Mohammedan philosophers, Averroes was a believer, but not Orthodox.
A sect of completely orthodox theologians condemned all philosophical thought outright. Algazel pointed out that all Truth necessary was to be found in the Koran, so speculation was unnecessary.
Averroes believed religion was a wealth of philosophical truth displayed in allegorical form.
Averroes is more important in Christian philosophy than in Islamic.
Despite writing in the 12th century, he was surprisingly translated into Latin in the 13th century, very quick for that age.
Arabic philosophy was not original; philosophers were more like commentators.
Between ancient Europe and Modern Europe the Dark Ages virtually killed intellectualism in Europe. The Byzantines and Arabs, while not innovators, preserved the ancient philosophy and learning which served as the foundation for modern thought.
The integration of Arabic thought into Europe produced scholasticism in the 13th century. The integration of Byzantine thought (and other causes) produced the Renaissance in the 15th century.
The Jews served as a go between between the Christians and the Spanish Moors. Knowing both Arabic and Latin, they supplied translations.
The Spanish Jews produced one important philosopher: Maimonides. Maimonides was born in Cordova in 1135. He went to Cairo in 1165 and lived out his life there. He wrote in Arabic, which was immediately translated into Hebrew and translated into Latin a few decades after his death. He wrote a book called Guide to Wanderers which was a book for philosophers who lost their faith. The book reconciled Aristotelianism to Judaism. The Jews hated Maimonides and elicited the Christian ecclesiastics to stop him.
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