Three Doctors of the Church

(Originally Written July 16, 2006 in Book 5)

The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell

Chapter III - Three Doctors of the Church

By the way I am watching "Take Home Defensive Driving". Rest of all it cost $40 bucks. Ridiculous. Secondly, it is four hours long. Absurd. Thirdly, it is immensely boring. Irritating.

There are four men regarded as Doctors of the Western Church. (I believe there are a number who have been added since Russell wrote this).

1) St. Ambrose
2) St. Jerome
3) St. Augustine
4) Pope Gregory the Great

"Ambrose, Jerome and Augustine all flourished during the brief period between the victory of the Catholic Church in the Roman Empire and the barbarian invasion" (Russell, 334).

The Barbarian invasions stunted intellectual growth and men of this caliber were not produced for another thousand years.

They, more than any other men molded the Church in how it would be shaped.

Ambrose determined the Church as being dominant to the State. Jerome produced the Latin Vulgate and made great strides in monasticism. Augustine laid the foundation of theology until the reformation and was widely used by both Luther and Calvin.

Ambrose's establishment as the Church being independent of the State was not challenged (philosophically) until Hobbes. It was revolutionary. The capital of the Western Empire at the end of the fourth century was Milan. Ambrose was the bishop of Milan.

His duties brought him into contact with the emperors frequently. He always treated them at least as equals, sometimes as subordinates.

At his time the State was "feeble, incompetent, governed by unprincipled self-seekers, and totally without any policy beyond that of momentary expedients. Contrarily, the Church was vigorous, able, guided by men prepared to sacrifice everything personal in its interests, and with a policy so far-sighted that it brought victory for the next thousand years" (Russell, 335).

Ambrose had every opportunity to become a powerful political figure.

Ambrose was born at Augusta Treverorum to a prefect of the Guals. At thirteen he went to Rome, was educated and learned a strong grounding in Greek. The young adult Ambrose took to law and was successful.

At 30 he became the governor of Liguria and Æmilia. At 34 he turned away from the secular government and became bishop of Milan. He gave all his wealth to the poor and served the Church the rest of his life, sometimes in the face of peril.

All three Doctors of this period, Jerome, Augustine and Ambrose wrote innumerable letters, many of which have survived. For this reason we know them better than any pagan philosopher or ecclesiastics of the Middle Ages.

Jerome wrote mostly to women, instructing them on how to maintain their virginity. Augustine wrote letters to everyone, mostly on doctrine or Church discipline. Ambrose wrote most interesting letters to emperors, chastising them when they failed in their duties and praising them when they fulfilled them.

The first public matter Ambrose dealt with was the altar and stature to Victory in Rome. It was a pagan icon removed by Constantinius (son of Constantine) reinstated by Julian the Apostate and then removed again by Emperor Gratian. Paganism lasted longer in the Senate than elsewhere in Rome. After Gratian's death a senator named Symmachus (a pagan) fought to bring it back. In 384 he became the prefect of Rome. When Symmachus sought to have the new Emperor Valentian II put it back, Ambrose wrote the boy king. He wrote "Let no one take advantage of your youth" and put for the thesis that "as all Romans owed military service to their sovereign, so he (the Emperor) owed service to the Almighty God" (Russell, 337). In addition to flattery, Ambrose threatened the young emperor with not being able to see a priest in Church or receiving a hostile greeting from a priest. Ambrose won the argument. But a usurper of Valentian II, Eugenics (a pagan) restored the idol. In 394 Emperor Theodosius defeated Eugenics and removed the altar.

Initially Ambrose had favor in the imperial court. But when the mother of Valentian II, Empress Justina (an Arian) asked for an Arian church in Milan, the Catholic Ambrose refused. The Empress sent troops to a church in Milan demanding it as it belonged to the Emperor. Ambrose assured the Empress that she may take anything that belonged to the emperor but since the wealth of the church belonged to the poor and the church to God, he had nothing to give her. The soldiers refused to take the church by force because the citizens backed Ambrose. The empress gave in. This established the precedent of the Church having authority over the State in some matters.

Ambrose's next conflict came with the Emperor Theodosius. A synagogue was burned at a bishop's instigation. Theodosius demanded that those responsible be punished and the synagogue be rebuilt at the bishop's expense. Ambrose was furious. He demanded that no such action be taken because it would cause only trouble. If the punishment is carried out the bishop will be martyred for standing up for his faith in Christ or acquiesce and become apostate. Also, money of the Church should not be used to support unbelief (as occurs in a synagogue). Theodosius backed down.

The next conflict between these two occurred when a mob in Thessolonica murdered a Roman captain. Theodosius orchestrated the slaughter of 7,000 Thessalonians in revenge. Ambrose withheld the sacraments from Theodosius until the emperor rented. Theodosius repented, without his purple kingly robes and paid public penance.

Ambrose was a remarkable statesman, but inferior to Augustine in philosophy and inferior to Jerome as a scholar.

Jerome is most notable for producing the Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible. The Vulgate was translated from original Hebrew texts, not the more erroneous Septuagint. Because Jerome illicit help from Jews in the translation it was initially met with harsh responses. Augustine's endorsement helped it to become the accepted version of the Catholic Church.

Jerome was born in 345 AD near Aquileia to a well-to-do, but not rich family. He studied rhetoric in Rome but he sinned there. He traveled through Gaul, retiring to Aquileia and became ascetic. He became a hermit in the Syrian desert and performed penance for his sinfulness in Rome. He then went back to Rome and befriended Pope Damasus, who encouraged him to create the Vulgate.

Jerome was quarrelsome to say the least. He fought with Augustine over the behavior of St. Peter. He fought with his friend Rufinius over Origen. He opposed Pelagius so avidly that his monastery was attacked by a Pelagian mob. He also fought with the Pope after the death of Damasus.

He left Rome for Bethlehem in 386 and lived there until his death in 420.

He converted and convinced many noble women to become nuns, pissing off people all over.

A young girl he convinced to become a nun was Eustochium. He wrote letters to her on how to maintain her virginity, exact meanings of Old Testament euphemisms, erotic mystical praise of covenantal life, stated that a nun is the Bride of Christ and the the Song of Solomon praises this type of relationship.

Linehan - I believe that this is a very bad misrepresentation of this book.

In a vision Jerome heard Christ tell him that he was a follower of Cicero, not Christ. Upon waking from this vision he denounced his love of Greek and Roman learning.

In his letters he embodies the Christian otherworldly hope of redemption outside of the collapsing world of the temporal Roman Empire.

It is strange (Russell contends) that Jerome, Augustine, and Ambrose all devoted themselves to Church issues, but no practical measures  to save their collapsing state.

Linehan - The emphasis on virginity by the early church to me seems harmful. It is true that some men and women may be called to a life of abstinence, but I do not think that this is a very likely occurrence. I know from a personal standpoint that living an abstinent life makes it hard to focus on anything other than virginity or how to lose it. I remained a virgin because of fear (partially) and because of failure (mostly). This was a source of enormous tension, self-turmoil, disappointment, frustration, agony, desperation, depression, guilt and countless hours of wasted time and effort. Virginity or abstinence as an end is not a virtue. What makes it virtuous is the reasoning behind it. If one declares perpetual virginity in accordance to God's plan then it is virtuous, but if it (or anything) is done as a way to impress God it is boastful and not a virtue at all. Also I find the practice of father's giving their daughters over to virginity reprehensible. It's a shame that things like this happened within Christianity because it gives ammo to those who are seeking to attack Christianity.

Augustine was born in 354 in Africa to a Christian mother and Pagan father. He spent time as a Manichaean, then became a Christian. He then became the bishop of Hippo, near Carthage, where he remained until he died in 430.

We know much of Augustine's life because of his autobiographical work Confessions.

Augustine was a passionate youth, unconcerned with virtue and impulsive. He searched for truth and righteousness relentlessly.

His youthful sins caused him to have a strong sense of sin later in life, "which made his life stern and his philosophy inhuman" (Russell, 345).

Linehan - I'm sure Russell meant this as a stab, but Augustine may very well have modestly accepted it as a compliment. I must admit that there are a few philosophers, theologians, or men that matter, with whom I identify with or respect more than Augustine.

Augustine opens Confessions with the story of stealing a pear for mischief's sake alone. He condemns himself for loving the act of sinning so much. Russell mocks this and calls it morbid to the modern mind. While this may be true it is a blight on the modern mind, not on Augustine.

Christian theology had two parts:
1) that concerned with the Church
2) that concerned with the individual.

The Catholics emphasized the first. The Protestants emphasized the second. Augustine created a harmonious synthesis that focused on both without any inconsistencies.

Augustine believed individual soul wee predestined to salvation, but had to be baptized and become a member of the Church. Predestination marks a direct connection between God and man, the Church was an intermediate between.

Sin was essential to the direct relation for two reasons:
1) Shows how God can cause man to suffer
2) Shows how souls are the most important member of the created order.

Russell calls Augustine's sense of sin 'abnormal'. Russell's indifference to sin however, is much more abnormal than any developed sense of it.

Augustine grabbed Latin easily, but hated Greek.

Lust overcame him at the age of sixteen.

Augustine's father did not pay any attention to his sins but kept him focused on school. His mother, in vain, tried to keep him chaste. He went to Carthage at 16 and fell in love with love. He also took a mistress because he was not ready for a wife, but was faithful to her and had a son he loved by her.

His mother then encouraged him to marry a girl worthy of his social status (which his mistress was not). In breaking up with his mistress to be married he broke his heart. He then took another mistress while waiting for his bride-to-be to come of age. At this time he prayed, "give me chastity and continence, only not yet" (Russell, 348).

By the time his marriage was to occur he had devoted himself to religion and chastity.

Augustine was excellent in rhetoric and introduced to philosophy by Cicero. He then became a Manichaean and taught rhetoric. He was fond of astrology at this time, but later despised it.

He read as much philosophy as was translated into Latin and mentions Aristotle's 'Ten Categories'. He grasped these works without a teacher, but decried his understanding because it profited him none.

Initially he began to reject Manichaeism because of scientific reasons, citing astronomy and Mani's (the founder of Manichaeism) blatant errors on astronomical matters. After doubting Manichaeism he went to teach in Rome.

He began to feel at odds with the Manichaeans more and more in Rome and began to slide in to skepticism, but still believed that something in men, some nature caused them to sin.

He believed evil to be a substance.

From Rome he went to Milan to teach rhetoric. He began to love Ambrose and admire the Catholic faith, but his newfound skepticism held him back.

His mother joined him in Milan and hastened his conversion.

In Milan he became acquainted with Platonism and fused the Platonic metaphysical doctrine of Logos with Christianity.

He then completely rejected Manichaeism and the notion of Evil as a substance, instead believing evil to come from the perverseness of the will.

Augustine found comfort in the writings of St. Paul (one reason I identify with him so well).

He gave up his new mistress and his wife-to-be and devoted himself to the Church. He moved back to Africa in 388 and spent the remainder of his life fighting heresies like the Donates, Manichaeism and Pelagianism.

Notes on Secular Humanism: Threat & Challenge - 1

(Originally written December 1, 2005 in Book 1)

Secular Humanism: Threat & Challenge
Robert E. Webber
1982

Chapter 1 - Introduction

America changed in the 1960's & 1970's. According to Jerry Falwell, "Secular humanism has become the religion of America".

History used to be divided into two eras, the pre-Christian era and the Christian era. Now we are entering a third era: the post-Christian era. (C.S. Lewis). The post-Christian era has brought about a change in society. Those in favor of this change see it as abandoning religion, which is false, for science, which is true.

Even Christians have changed. They now separate the secular and sacred aspects of life. Prayer and church no longer have a place in the public persona of Christians.

This book is about the recovery of an authentic Christian humanism.

Secularization has driven a wedge between religious faith and our life in the world. Secular humanism is a potent force in American society. The extreme religious right does not have the answers. The extreme religious left does not have the answers. The alternative to the religious right and left is the recovery of authentic Christian humanism.

Chapter 2 - What is Humanism?

"Humanism challenges every principle America was founded on" - Jerry Falwell

Humanism is defined as a reference to man and man's importance. Humanism is interested in what man is capable of creating, especially by using his mind.

Education is important to humanism.

Humanism came from the Greco-Roman world and the Judaic-Christian world.

Protagoras (500 BC) wrote, "man is the measure of all things". He was the first humanist.

Biblical humanism comes from Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and the Song of Songs.

The difference between Greco-Roman and Judeo-Christian humanism is that the first is naturalistic and the latter is supernatural. Christian humanism asserts that God became human and understands what humanity faces. It also makes God knowable.

Human life is sacred because man is created in the image of God and because God became human.

The Incarnation affirmed that moral absolutes were real. This is contrary to the pagan or secular belief that morals are relative.

Christian humanism has been perverted over the years (the Inquisition, the Crusades and Theodosius' decree of Christianity as the only legal religion are examples of this).

The rediscovery of Greco-Roman humanism in the Renaissance period paved the way for today's secular humanism. That humanism denies anything that is supernatural. That humanism sees religion as an obstacle blocking growth as a species. That humanism sees religion as imposing beliefs upon individuals, denying them the opportunity to live by personal convictions.

Humanism does not wish to negate all morality however. Because their view lacks an ultimate God or an ultimate good. they have no common way of measuring good or evil.

Humanism acquires its values from experience, observation and rationalization only. Humanism seeks to individualize all beliefs and values.

Christian humanism contrasts secular humanism in four ways:
-Confidence in God, in Christ
-A supernatural worldview
-The power of Christ through the Church
-Incarnational humanitarianism

Christ is the model human for Christian humanism. Christ came as a man due to the dehumanizing of men.

Christian humanism seeks to stop the dehumanizing effects of secular humanism and restore the intended nature of man in society. Christian humanism recognizes the battle between good and evil, light and darkness and between God and Satan.

In death, Christ destroyed the power of evil. In resurrection, Christ demonstrated his power to recreate in his new body.

A Christian humanist explains the evils that still exists today in two ways:
-Christ's work will only be completed when He comes again
-The Church is the presence of the future world to come

Christian humanism is rooted in God's love for humanity