(Originally written November 2, 2006 in Book 11)
The Classical Mind
W.T. Jones
Chapter 6 - Aristotle: Metaphysics, Natural Science and Logic
Change
Change is a puzzle because it seems to involve a contradiction.
Aristotle's predecessors wrestled unsuccessfully with the paradox of change. Plato did not solve the puzzle and admitted that it was a mystery.
Aristotle's conception of form and matter made change possible to articulate through reason: form changes, but matter remains consistent.
Development in a systematic change. It is a succession of small changes following a pattern toward a specific end.
Development also solves the problem of the one and the many. The purpose or end of a thing unifies the many (stages of development) into a single thing.
Aristotle's Four Causes
The form is the end of anything. Like Plato, Aristotle believed that understand a form would shed light on a thing. But, for different reasons.
The function of a thing was its 'final cause'. It was a part of a thing's nature, but not the totality of it.
4 Causes:
1. Final Cause
2. Material Cause
3. Formal Cause
4. Efficient Cause
To understand anything, Aristotle claimed we must know four aspects of any individual thing:
1) The material it is composed of (material cause)
2) The motion or action that began it (efficient cause)
3) The function or purpose for which it exists (final cause)
4) The form it actualizes and by which it fulfills its purpose (the formal cause)
Today, scientists are only interested in one of the Aristotelian causes: The efficient cause
Aristotle agreed with Plato that the universe is a relational structure and that every individual thing it can be known only by transcending that thing and seeing its relation to everything else in the universe.
They both agreed that complete knowledge is impossible.
Natural Science
Aristotle called nature that which is sensible. Perceptible objects compose nature.
Nature is not identical with the sensible world.
Artifacts are man-man objects that are not "nature.
Nature - the totality of sensible objects capable of spontaneous change
From Book II of Physics
-Some things exist by nature, other by causes
-Nature consist of things with an innate impulse to change
-"Nature is a source or cause of being moved and being at rest in that to which it belongs primarily" (Jones, 227-228).
Natural science is concerned with the changes of natural objects. Every change is the fulfillment of some potentiality.
Types of changes:
1. Qualitative change (i.e. cold - hot)
2. Quantitative change - increase/decrease in amount
3. Locomotive change - chasing of place
4. Substantial change - substance comes into or passes out of being.
Motion is eternal
Aristotle effectively dealt with arguments that denied the eternality of motion.
Despite claiming the eternality of motion, Aristotle claims there must necessarily be an unmoved mover.
There is a first principle because the is neither an infinite series of motions or an infinite variety of kinds.
The Unmoved Mover
An eternal motion must have an eternal cause.
Original motion must be a change of place. Quantitative change (increase/decrease) involves change of place. Qualitative change also involves a change of place.
An eternal mover will cause an eternal locomotion. This motion must be circular.
The unmoved mover is pure actuality.
The unmoved mover is always thinking and understanding. The unmoved mover thinks of himself. His knowledge is immediate and complete self-consciousness.
The unmoved mover is called 'god' by Aristotle. This does not have any (or very few) religious implications.
There is no divine providence in Aristotle's conception of god.
God is a metaphysical necessity for Aristotle. This god is not an object of worship. It is transcendent and remote.
Astronomy and Physics
Geocentric, the earth is stationary.
The universe is made of concentric spheres.
Each element: fire, air, water and earth has its own natural place and natural motion.
The four elements are the material causes of physical things.
The formal cause of any particular thing is the structure into which its material factor is organized.
Biology - Psychology
Aristotle's Empiricism: Aristotle's empiricism was a correction of the rationalist tendency of the Ancient Greeks.
The Greek neglect of experimentation even in Aristotle is one of the key differences between Modern and Greek science.
Aristotle's psychology was based on biology.
The "psyche" was his word for soul. Psyche is the form of a living object.
Psychology: It's method and scope
What is soul? The body cannot be soul. The soul is the form of the body. Body = actuality; Soul = potentiality.
Powers of soul:
-nutritive
-appetitive
-sensory
-locomotive
-power of thinking
Plants have the nutritive soul. Animals have the nutritive and sensory soul.
Anything with sensory powers must have the appetitive soul. Appetite - desire, passion and wish.
The power of thinking is for man and any other being higher than man.
The Nutritive Psyche:
The Nutritive Psyche makes the potential actual. It is the simplest soul and that which all other psyches are built upon.
The function of the nutritive psyche is to sustain life, to keep the body alive.
The sensitive Psyche:
The sensitive soul is the type of the soul that exists at the animal level.
Sense experience is brought into actuality in perception.
Perception is a dual actualization
1) An actualization of the object as an object of perception
2) An actualization of the sense organ as the preceptor
The sensitive psyche involves something like consciousness
Aristotle distinguishes between:
1) Physiological change
2) Perception
Aristotle is a realist, so the difference between physiological change and perception is purely psychological consideration.
The Rational Psyche
Man has a combined soul of nutritive, sensitive and rational psyches.
Man's perception is different than animals because of the involvement of the rational psyche.
Memory and the nursing of it to the here-and-now experience allows man's cognition to take place. It allows men to recognize universals from particulars.
Thought is rooted in experience for Aristotle.
Thought is the form of forms, as the tool of tools is the hand.
Thought is divided into two categories:
1. Unanalyzable wholes
2. Prior Synthesis
Logic
Aristotle invented formal logic.
Aristotle distinguished between truth and validity.
Truth is a characteristic of individual propositions.
Validity is the logical relationship between multiple propositions.
A syllogism is two premises and a logically derived conclusion.
Limitations of Aristotle's logic
Aristotle's logic covers a relatively small part of reasoning
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