Stoicism

The History of Western Philosophy
Bertrand Russell

Chapter XXVIII Stoicism

Zeno, the founder of Stoicism was a materialist who combined Cynicism with Heraclitus. Later, Stoicism took on a bit of Platonism and eventually materialism died out.

Stoicism is the least Greek form of philosophy with the earliest Stoics coming from Syria and the later ones being primarily Roman.

Zeno was primarily concerned with virtue and ethics. Everything else was important only in how it pertained to virtue.

Zeno denied the existence of chance. Zeno believed in a determinism that was rigid, but set up by a beneficent creator through natural laws.

"In the life of an individual man, virtue is the sole good; such things as health, happiness,
possessions, are of no account. Since virtue resides in the will, everything really good or bad in a
man's life depends only upon himself. He may become poor, but what of it? He can still be virtuous. A tyrant may put him in prison, but he can still persevere in living in harmony with Nature. He may be sentenced to death, but he can die nobly, like Socrates" (Russell, 254-55).

There is a coldness to Stoicism as not only bad passions are condemned, but all passions.

"The Stoic is not virtuous in order to do good, but does good in order to
be virtuous" (Russell, 256).

"Kant--who resembles them--says that you must be kind to your brother, not because you are fond of him, but because the moral law enjoins kindness; I doubt, however, whether, in private life, he lived down to this precept" (Russell, 256).

Gradually stoicism incorporated other elements and became Platonic in nature under Panaetius (who in turn influenced Cicero). Under Posidonius (circa 135 - 51 BC) the Platonic element was stronger in Stoicism then in the Skeptical theories present at the Academy.

The three Roman Stoics: Seneca, Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius were much more important historically than philosophically.

Seneca turned out to be the tutor of Nero and was forced to commit suicide in A.D. 65. His dying legacy of a virtuous life remained important to his followers and to later Christians.

Epictetus, a slave who flourished between 60 and 100 AD was originally a slave and then served as a minister for the emperors until Domitian banished all philosophers.

Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 121 - 180) was an emperor. His Meditations were a personal journal of Stoic virtue.

Stoicism is a philosophy of a tired age, not a hopeful one. Stoicism suited both Marcus Aurelius and Epictetus because it was a philosophy of survival.

"If we understand that virtue is the only true good, we shall see that no real evil can befall us" (Russell, 263).

"Every man is an actor in a play, in which God has assigned the parts; it is our duty to perform our part worthily, whatever it may be" (Russell, 264).

Aurelius taught that life in harmony with the universe is what was good and one should act accordingly.

Aurelius taught that all men were brothers and that we are to love them even when they do wrong because they only do wrong out of ignorance.

Although Stoics were mostly concerned with ethics, they made great strides in the theory of knowledge as well.

The theory of knowledge avoided Plato's distrust of the perceptions. They concluded that while the perceptions might not be certain, they are probable on the whole and worthy of trust.

The Stoics also believed in innate ideas and principles.

The Stoic notion of the equality of man and the doctrine of natural law, when backed by the weight of Christianity saw the end of despotism in the 17th century.