William of Ockham

(Originally written December 7, 2006 in Book 7)

Classics of Philosophy 2nd Ed.
Louis P. Pojman

William of Ockham
-born in Ockham, England circa 1285
-Joined the Franciscan order
-Studied at Oxford
-Accused of heresy in 1324
-Fled to Munich to be protected by the Emperor Ludwig of Bavaria
-Best known for the 'Law of Parsimony' or 'Ockham's Razor' - we should always adopt the simpler explanation if we can

Ockham applied this to the problem of universals and particulars

He held that all there was was particulars or substances and that universal were unnecessary inventions.

He was an advocate of Nominalism. He has been viewed as the founder of that school of thought.

Summa Logicae
William of Ockham

Part 1:
Ch. 14: On the Universal

The term 'particular' has two senses:
1) A particular is that which is one and not many. Universals are actually particulars in this sense. Though they are represented in many things they are actually still one thing and not many.
2) A particular is that which one and not many and which cannot function as a sign of many.

Ockham holds that if we take the term 'universal' to mean that which is not one in number, then there is no such thing as a universal.

A universal is one particular thing and is only universal in signification.

There are two kinds of universals:
1) Universals by nature
2) Universals by convention (i.e. language)

Chapter 15: That the Universal is not a thing outside the mind

No universal is a particular substance.

1) Every substance is numerically one
2) There is no good reason why one substance should be a universal and not another
3) Therefore, no particular substance is a universal

1) If some substance is several things, then it is either several universal things or several particular things.
2) Either there will be an infinite regress to follow or it will be granted that no substance is a universal in a way that is incompatible with it being a particular too.
3) Therefore, no substance is a universal.

If universals were substances then no creation would happen.

After presenting his own argument to appeal to Aristotle who says that, "it is impossible that substance be something that can be predicated universally" (Pojman, 489).

Every universal is an invention of the mind. All propositions are composed of universals.

Ch. 16: Against Scotus' account of the universal

The view that universals and particulars differ only formally, not really is not a view Ockham endorses.

There can be no distinction in the mind if there is no distinction in reality.

There is no such thing as a formal distinction. All distinct things are really distinct.