(Originally written January 3, 2007 in Book 12)
Well, That paper really helped me to get a 'B' in epistemology. But that was last semester. Now, it is J-Term. This will now be the Notebook of ENG 370 "Classical Rhetoric"
On Rhetoric: A theory of Civic Discourse
Aristotle, trans. George A. Kennedy
Oxford University Press
NY, 2007
pg. 27 - 55
Book 1: Pisteis, or the Means of Persuasion in Public Address
BKs I & II deal with the public speaker's art of persuasion through:
1) Presenting one's character as trustworthy
2) Persuasive Arguments
3) Moving the emotions of the audience
This part of Rhetoric has become known as "invention" Aristotle calls it "dianoia" (thought).
BKs I & II appear to be originally linked together, but BK III appears to be a separate work that was added later.
Chapters 1-3: Introduction
Ch. 1 Introduction to Rhetoric for students of Dialectic
Ch. 1 is very Platonic
Dialectic was taught by Aristotle as the art of philosophical disputation.
Topics is Aristotle's textbook of the Dialectic.
Dialectic:
Student 1 - state Thesis "X"
Student 2 - Refute "X" by asking yes/no questions
If student catches student 1 in a contradiction, "X" is refuted.
Dialectic proceeds by question and answer. It is merely proof and refutation.
Logical argument is the only acceptable argument in Dialectic. Rhetoric is broader.
Both dialectic and rhetoric build arguments on commonly held opinions (endoxa) and deal with probability, not logical certainty.
Dialectic examines generalities; rhetoric seeks answers to specific particulars.
BK I's Ch. 1 denies the use of emotional appeals in rhetoric which contradicts BK III. The best explanation of this is (according to Kennedy) Aristotle uses chapter 1 to portrait ideal rhetoric in an ideal society; but, Book III deals with the corrupt, but real society of Athens and the need for emotional appeals in real rhetoric.
"Rhetoric is an anistrophos to dialectic" (Kennedy, 30). [antistrophos = counterpart, correlative, coordinate]
Both are independent of any specific science.
All people share in both to some extent.
People can participate in Rhetoric either accidentally or through an ability acquired by habit. Those acting on the latter are participating in the art [tekhné] of Rhetoric.
"Pisteis are artistic" in rhetoric. [pisteis are proof, means of persuasion]. Aristotle uses pisteis here to relate 'logical proofs'.
Enthymemes is the 'body' of persuasion.
Verbal attacks, pity, emotions are part of the mind (psykhé) that do not appeal to reason.
In persuasion it is imperative to have an introduction [prooemion] and a narrative [diégésis] and other parts to engage the audience.
Artistic method deals with pisteis; pistis (singular form of pisteis) is a sort of demonstration [apodeixis].
Rhetorical apodeis is enthymeme. (Strongest of the pisteis).
Enthymeme is a type of syllogism.
Commonly held opinions = endoxa.
Enthymeme - somehting in the mind, striking thought (Isocrates), "a syllogism from probabilities or signs" (Aristotle).
Enthymeme in Aristotle is differentiated from syllogism in that syllogism deals with logical necessity and absolute truth; whereas, enthymeme deals with probability.
The Usefulness of Rhetoric
Rhetoric is useful because:
1) "The true and the just are by nature stronger than their opposites" (Aristotle)
2) Knowledge needs to be aided by speech in persuading others.
The function [ergon] of rhetoric is to see the available means of persuasion in particular cases, not to persuade.
Proairesis - Deliberate Choice
Ch. 2 Definition of Rhetoric, Pisteis, or the means of persuasion in public address: Paradigms, Enthymemes, and their Sources; Common Topics, Eidé and Idia
Rhetoric is "an ability, in each particular case, to see the available means of persuasion" (37).
Pisteis are either a technic (non-artistic) or entechnic (embodied in art, artistic).
A technic pisteis are proof that are preexisting the speaker's deliver. Entechnic pistes are those provided to the audience by the speaker.
There are three species of pisteis provided through the speech:
1) Those in the character of the speaker [ethos]
2) Those in the disposing of the listener
3) Those in the speech itself [logos]
Character is almost the most authoritative form of persuasion.
Persuasion in the pathos is the art of persuasion via emotional appeal.
Persuasion via showing the truth from whatever is persuasive occurs through the arguments [logoi].
Fair-mindedness = epikikeia
Rhetoric is an offshoot of dialectic and ethical studies (politics).
Rhetoric is partly dialectic. It mirrors dialectic.
Dialectic has the syllogism and the induction [epagoge]. Rhetoric has the enthymeme (syllogism) and the paradeigma (example).
Dialectic syllogism mirrors Rhetoric enthymeme. Dialectic induction mirrors rhetoric paradeigma.
Some rhetorical utterances are paradigmatic (rhetorically inductive), some are enthymematic (rhetorically syllogistic). Some orators are paradigmatic, others are enthymematic. Enthymematic speeches are more exciting and more favorable to audience reaction than paradigmatic ones.
Rhetoric forms enthymemes from things customarily debated.
Enthymemes and paradigms must be drawn from few premises that are not necessarily true.
Enthymemes are derived from probabilities [eikota] and signs [semeia].
Probability = eikos. Probabilities = eikota.
A necessary sign is a tekmerion. Tekmerions are irrefutable, also other signs can be refuted.
Demonstrative - apodeiktikai
The Topics of Syllogisms and Enthymemes
Topos - place (literal meaning)
Topos - forms of arguments (Isocrates)
Topoi - Topos
"Species" of knowledge refers to a specific set of premises unique to a particular science. Topoi are premises common [Koinei] to all.
Ch. 3 The Three Species of Rhetoric
There are three species of rhetoric.
There are three classes of hearers.
A speech consists of three things: a speaker, a subject and an audience.
The objective [telos] of the speech relates to the audience.
A hearer must be either an:
1) Observer [theoros]
2) Judge [Krites]
A judge deals with either post or future events. An observer is concerned with the ability of the speaker.
The three species/genera of rhetoric:
1) Deliberative [symbouleutikon] - is either protseptic (exhortation) or apotreptic (dissuasion)
2) Judicial [dikanikon] - is either accusation [kategoria] or defense [apologia]
3) Demonstrative [epideiktikon] - is either praise [epainos] or blame [psogos]
Deliberative rhetoric deals with the future. Judicial rhetoric deals with the past. Demonstrative rhetoric deals with the present.
The end of deliberative rhetoric is the advantageous (sympheron). The end of judicial rhetoric is the just (dikaion) and the unjust. The end of demonstrative rhetoric is the honorable (salon) and the shameful.
Propositions common to all species of rhetoric:
Koina are the common things in rhetoric. Idia are the particular things in rhetoric.
It is necessary for all rhetoricians to have propositions [protaseis] about possibilities and impossibilities.
It is necessary for all rhetoricians to have propositions about "greater" and "lesser", about generals and specifics.
Chs. 4-15: Idia, or specific topics, in each of the three species of rhetoric.
There are three classes of dialectical propositions:
1) Ethical
2) Physical
3) Logical
Ethical propositions include political.
Physical and logical propositions are of no use to rhetoric. Ethical propositions are widely used.
Chapters 4-8: Deliberative Rhetoric
Chapter 4: Political Topics for Deliberative Rhetoric
Idia - Specifics
Rhetoric as a tool (in Aristotle) includes a practical knowledge of a subject matter it is used in. This is not an exhaustive knowledge though.
Political Rhetoric deals with only the possible good and evil that can come to pass. It doesn't deal with what necessarily exists or what is impossible to exist.
Rhetoric is a combination of analytical knowledge and knowledge of characters.
The most important political rhetoric topics are finances, war and peace, national defense, imports and exports and the framing of laws.
Someone who wishes to engage in deliberative rhetoric on any political topic should have a basic, foundation and practical knowledge of these five categories.
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