(Originally written February 28, 2007 in Book 13)
Pg. 46 Transcending Outward or Toward the Beyond
Transcending to the "outward" realm is the pressing beyond one's self by searching to the outermost limits of one's being.
"God or the Transcendent is found at the uttermost extremity of human experience" (46).
The Circumference of All Things
Meister Eckhart: "God is an infinite sphere whose center is everywhere and whose circumference is nowhere" (46).
God has no boundaries and man can transcend outward to God and never reach a limit.
The "Beyond" or the "out there" are good ways of describing outward transcendence.
The Transcendent is somewhere beyond and man must go beyond himself to reach it.
Reaction to the God up there or out there:
Rudolf Bultmann states that referring to God up there or out there is holding onto a mythological conception of reality. Bultmann feels that by demythologizing God makes the true meaning of God's mystery clear. He contends that the demythologization of the Bible is not to make religion more acceptable to modern men, but to make the Christian faith clearer to modern man.
Bultmann rejects the objectification of God by showing God in the determined worldview of modern science.
He holds that God acts in ways that are hidden and to try and un-hde his actions is to objectify God.
Bultmann did not intend to deny the possibility of transcendence, but that God is active in human personal, existential experience in ways that are unobservable.
Bultmann advocates for an eschatological transcendence.
Transcending Toward the End
Christianity radically changed the nature of time by sanctifying it through the Incarnation.
The Death of God
"G.W.F. Hegel wrote that God is dead and Friedrich Nietzsche took it seriously" (49).
Thomas J.J. Altizer contends that God died when he became Incarnate. If Christ is identical with God, then heaven was emptied of God when Christ came to Earth.
Altizer sees God as a dialectical process rather than an existent being. "God is a historical and dialectical process which can come to realization only by negation" (51).
Altizer claims retrospective and vertical transcendence are impossible. He seemingly advocates eschatological transcendence.
One must transcend forward in the movement of history.
The Secularization of Christianity
Theology must be anthropological: "God cannot be found beyond the world but only in other persons" (53).
We can no longer speak meaningfully of God or the Transcendent.
Religion can be secularized and humanized by being understood in completely human forms.
Transcending toward a center:
The Primitive Mythical Center of Life
The center served as a doorway to God in preliterate religions.
The primitive religious man sought to center himself where the Sacred breaks through.
The Mystical Center of the Universe
Mysteries often speak of God as the Center of all things.
Becoming union with the center of God is the goal of transcendence to the center.
The Center in the Divine Milieu
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin calls God the Center of the Universe and that man should plunge into God. He must seek "to be united while remaining oneself" (55).
Transcending toward the Depth or Ground
Mystics have sought the Divine in the depth of their souls for a long time.
Robinson's God Within
John A.T. Robinson argued that God cannot be "up there" as a sky or High God. He states that the spatial way of picturing God is a stumbling block rather than aid to belief in God.
Robinson does not seek to replace a transcendent God with a pantheistic and purely immanent one. He simply seeks to remove symbolism of spatial language in religion to make it more relevant.
Instead of speaking about the Transcendent up there, people ought to speak of the transcendent depth of God in relationships.
God and the Subconscious
Since Freud it has been common to closely associate the subconscious with the Transcendent or to render them identical.
Carl Gustav Jung saw God as the idealization of one's own self-image and thus, to know self is to know God and to know God is to know self.
Transcending in a circle
Transcendence by Eternal Recurrence
Atheism does not necessarily deny all transcendence. Nietzsche even needed to transcend. He complained about the "unbearable solicitude of life without God" in a letter from July 2, 1885.
Conceptually, Nietzsche was never theistic or pantheistic; but, existentially, he related traditional self-transcendence with a type of his own: the "willing the eternal recurrence of the same state of affairs" (59).
Nietzsche's 'eternal recurrence' is the only way of overcoming utter nihilism.
Life is not fleeting, it is eternally recurring.
Transcendence by Eternal Absurdity
Albert Camus did not want to negate God or appeal to God. He wanted to live on what he knew and that alone.
Camus seeks transcendence in rebelling against nihilism in affirmation for he cyclical nature of one's absurd life.
There is a self-determined and self initiated transcendence byron the absurdity of one's life in an absurd universe. One can transcend a personal nihilism, but nothing else.
Religious experience always involves transcendence.
Transcendence goes seven ways:
1) Backward to the origin - primitive man's transcendence
2) Upward to the highest possible reality: Neo-Platonism
3) Outward - mystical transcendence
4) Inward - mystical transcendence
5) Forward to the final end - modern demythologized transcendence
6) Downward to the Ground of all - modern demythologized transcendence
7) Circular - those who deny religion
Religious experience has many dimensions. It is more broader than theism.
Humans are incurably religious.
A human must transcend.
The truly religious man seeks reality in transcendence.
Wednesday, February 28, 2007
Tuesday, February 27, 2007
Chapter 15 - Pocket Guide To World Religions
(Originally written February 27, 2007 in Book 14)
Pocket Guide To World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 15 - Traditional and Tribal Religions
Name
Many people around the world follow religious customs that do not have an official name or even an identity.
Tribal religions vary greatly, but embody patterns that are deeply ingrained in the human psyche.
Numbers and Distribution
Estimates say 150 million people practice some traditional religion in a pure form.
This number is rapidly dwindling because of modernization and other religions' missionary efforts.
Symbols
Symbols are crucial in a traditional culture. "Symbols are signs that stand for some deeper reality, but often the symbol itself becomes the reality" (Corduan, 137).
History
There are debates on this because this is the very question of the origin of religion.
Scriptures
Most traditional religions do not have scriptures and most is passed down orally.
Major Beliefs
Most traditional religions worship various spirits.
Most traditional religions practice some type of ancestor veneration.
Spirits are limited beings and need to be offered things to be maintained and happy.
Almost all traditional religions believe in a Creator. The Creator is usually all-powerful and all-knowing. But the Creator is not readily worshipped.
Worship is done in a ritualistic fashion.
Magic is often practiced in traditional religions.
A shaman is someone who is possessed by spirits regularly and speaks the sports' messages to the people.
Negative magic is often referred to as witchcraft.
Some African cultures believe that when people die it is because they have been cursed by a witch.
Fortune telling and divination is important in many traditional religions.
Subgroups
Each tribal religion is locally bound so there are no subgroups.
Some tribes have totems or groups. A man from one totem must marry a woman from another totem to avoid inbreeding.
Worship Practices
Most tribal religions distinguish between worship of the Creator and veneration of spirits.
Religious Buildings
Normally there is a building for religious practices; but, these are not like churches, mosques or temples.
Home Practices
Traditional cultures are not as individualistic as modern cultures. Home practices are more a responsibility to the given culture.
Clothing
Ornamentation can sometimes indicate a person's social standing.
Diet
It varies greatly from culture to culture, but the idea of taboo is prevalent.
Taboo foods cannot be ingested under any circumstances without dire consequences.
Some cultures view food as a fight from the Creator. The Algonquin tribes of North America believed that whenever one kills a living being, even accidentally, one must give thanks to the Creator for it and eat it.
Calendar
There is no beginning or end to time in traditional cultures. There are no truly unique historical events.
Pocket Guide To World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 15 - Traditional and Tribal Religions
Name
Many people around the world follow religious customs that do not have an official name or even an identity.
Tribal religions vary greatly, but embody patterns that are deeply ingrained in the human psyche.
Numbers and Distribution
Estimates say 150 million people practice some traditional religion in a pure form.
This number is rapidly dwindling because of modernization and other religions' missionary efforts.
Symbols
Symbols are crucial in a traditional culture. "Symbols are signs that stand for some deeper reality, but often the symbol itself becomes the reality" (Corduan, 137).
History
There are debates on this because this is the very question of the origin of religion.
Scriptures
Most traditional religions do not have scriptures and most is passed down orally.
Major Beliefs
Most traditional religions worship various spirits.
Most traditional religions practice some type of ancestor veneration.
Spirits are limited beings and need to be offered things to be maintained and happy.
Almost all traditional religions believe in a Creator. The Creator is usually all-powerful and all-knowing. But the Creator is not readily worshipped.
Worship is done in a ritualistic fashion.
Magic is often practiced in traditional religions.
A shaman is someone who is possessed by spirits regularly and speaks the sports' messages to the people.
Negative magic is often referred to as witchcraft.
Some African cultures believe that when people die it is because they have been cursed by a witch.
Fortune telling and divination is important in many traditional religions.
Subgroups
Each tribal religion is locally bound so there are no subgroups.
Some tribes have totems or groups. A man from one totem must marry a woman from another totem to avoid inbreeding.
Worship Practices
Most tribal religions distinguish between worship of the Creator and veneration of spirits.
Religious Buildings
Normally there is a building for religious practices; but, these are not like churches, mosques or temples.
Home Practices
Traditional cultures are not as individualistic as modern cultures. Home practices are more a responsibility to the given culture.
Clothing
Ornamentation can sometimes indicate a person's social standing.
Diet
It varies greatly from culture to culture, but the idea of taboo is prevalent.
Taboo foods cannot be ingested under any circumstances without dire consequences.
Some cultures view food as a fight from the Creator. The Algonquin tribes of North America believed that whenever one kills a living being, even accidentally, one must give thanks to the Creator for it and eat it.
Calendar
There is no beginning or end to time in traditional cultures. There are no truly unique historical events.
Class notes on Hegelian Aesthetics
(Originally written February 27, 2007 in Book 16)
Hegel (1770-1832)
Last of the German Idealists
In order to do philosophy one must have a coherent framework.
Philosophy is an aspect of God's self-conscious.
Spirit is the ultimate reality.
"Rational is the real and the real is the rational".
Art is one of the three modes of expressing the Absolute Spirit:
1. Art
2. Religion
3. Philosophy
To understand Absolute Spirit one must first understand:
1) Subjective Spirit - known introspectively
2) Objective Spirit - the concrete world is spirit objectified
Dialectical Method
Thesis
Antithesis
Synthesis
The Dialectical method is how Hegel understood all phenomena.
Art precedes from Spirit. Art is part of the absolute's self-manifestation of thought.
Inspiration is a subjective thing in art, but the expression of that inspiration through the work of art is an objectification of a subjective inspiration.
Art is aiming at unifying the subjective and objective
Three types of Art:
Symbolic - sensors element dominates
Romantic - ideas dominate the sensuous part
Classical - a harmony of idea and sensuous part
Architecture is the paradigm of symbolic art.
Sculpture is the paradigm of classical art.
Romantic art is the quintessential art of Christendom, the true Religion.
Art is wasting its time if it is solely imitating nature.
The purpose of art is transcendent. Art is a way spirit is getting to know itself.
Hegelianism continues on through:
1. Marxism
2. Process Theory
3. John Dewey
Dewey held each art form has its own language.
Dewey states that since art always challenges conventions art is essentially liberal and is about producing something new and different.
Hegel (1770-1832)
Last of the German Idealists
In order to do philosophy one must have a coherent framework.
Philosophy is an aspect of God's self-conscious.
Spirit is the ultimate reality.
"Rational is the real and the real is the rational".
Art is one of the three modes of expressing the Absolute Spirit:
1. Art
2. Religion
3. Philosophy
To understand Absolute Spirit one must first understand:
1) Subjective Spirit - known introspectively
2) Objective Spirit - the concrete world is spirit objectified
Dialectical Method
Thesis
Antithesis
Synthesis
The Dialectical method is how Hegel understood all phenomena.
Art precedes from Spirit. Art is part of the absolute's self-manifestation of thought.
Inspiration is a subjective thing in art, but the expression of that inspiration through the work of art is an objectification of a subjective inspiration.
Art is aiming at unifying the subjective and objective
Three types of Art:
Symbolic - sensors element dominates
Romantic - ideas dominate the sensuous part
Classical - a harmony of idea and sensuous part
Architecture is the paradigm of symbolic art.
Sculpture is the paradigm of classical art.
Romantic art is the quintessential art of Christendom, the true Religion.
Art is wasting its time if it is solely imitating nature.
The purpose of art is transcendent. Art is a way spirit is getting to know itself.
Hegelianism continues on through:
1. Marxism
2. Process Theory
3. John Dewey
Dewey held each art form has its own language.
Dewey states that since art always challenges conventions art is essentially liberal and is about producing something new and different.
The Dimensions of Religious Experience (A)
(Originally written February 27, 2007 in Book 13)
Philosophy of Religion
Norman Geisler and Winfried Corduan
Part 3 The Dimensions of Religious Experience
Through commitment to the ultimate Transcendent Other a person is able to transcend himself.
Religious transcendence has been backward, upward, outward, forward, inward, downward and in a circle.
Transcending Toward the Beginning
Transcending backward to the Origin of religious aspirations has been a characteristic feature of the primitive religious experience.
Eliade's Myth of Origins:
By ritually repeating the original act of the gods one can recall the original time of the act.
Eliade holds that "religion is the paradigmatic solution for every existential crisis not only because it can be indefinitely repeated, but also because it is believed to have a transcendent origin; thus enabling a human being to transcend personal situations and finally gain access to the world of spirit" (42).
The limitations of transcending backward
Eliade describes a retrospective kind of religious transcendence.
Transcending toward the Highest
Plato's cave is an example of transcending upwards.
Plotinus believed that all things proceed from the One and all things return to it.
The further one is from the One the less reality it possess. To purify one's self of evil (non-reality) one must transcend up to the One.
Transcendence for Plotinus was not retrospective, but vertical towards unity.
Plotinus saw transcendence as natural, not supernatural. Neo-Platonic Christians have difficulty with reconciling natural transcendence with divine grace.
Philosophy of Religion
Norman Geisler and Winfried Corduan
Part 3 The Dimensions of Religious Experience
Through commitment to the ultimate Transcendent Other a person is able to transcend himself.
Religious transcendence has been backward, upward, outward, forward, inward, downward and in a circle.
Transcending Toward the Beginning
Transcending backward to the Origin of religious aspirations has been a characteristic feature of the primitive religious experience.
Eliade's Myth of Origins:
By ritually repeating the original act of the gods one can recall the original time of the act.
Eliade holds that "religion is the paradigmatic solution for every existential crisis not only because it can be indefinitely repeated, but also because it is believed to have a transcendent origin; thus enabling a human being to transcend personal situations and finally gain access to the world of spirit" (42).
The limitations of transcending backward
Eliade describes a retrospective kind of religious transcendence.
Transcending toward the Highest
Plato's cave is an example of transcending upwards.
Plotinus believed that all things proceed from the One and all things return to it.
The further one is from the One the less reality it possess. To purify one's self of evil (non-reality) one must transcend up to the One.
Transcendence for Plotinus was not retrospective, but vertical towards unity.
Plotinus saw transcendence as natural, not supernatural. Neo-Platonic Christians have difficulty with reconciling natural transcendence with divine grace.
The Characteristics of Religious Experience
(Originally written February 27, 2007 in Book 13)
Philosophy of Religion 2nd Edition
Norman Geisler & Winfried Corduan
Part 2 The Characteristics of Religious Experience
In order for an experience to be a religious experience it must:
1) Involve awareness of the Transcendent
2) Involve a person making an ultimate commitment to the Transcendent
Religious Experience Involves an Awareness of the Transcendent
Whatever the description or name for the Transcendent, there is something, real or unreal, which goes beyond the individual in which or by which he transcends his finite conditions.
Some Paradigms for the Meaning of Transcendence
Paul M. van Buren believed that all language used as God-language or its equivalent is a dead language.
Ian T. Ramsey holds that metaphors and odd words have a power of disclosure. These odd phrases, metaphors and tautologies have deeper meanings than can be linguistically expressed.
The need for self-transcendence
"Religious experience involves the need to transcend the unalterable displeasures of life" (30).
Peter Koëstenbaum's description of religion: "man's effort to do something about the desperate condition of his own finitude" (30-31).
Sigmund Freud depicted religion as the human search for a cosmic father.
Rudolf Bultmann defined religion as a human longing to escape this world by discovering a sphere above this world.
Walter Kaufmann - Religion is rooted in man's goal to transcend himself. Man is the ape that wants to be god and man is the God-intoxicated ape.
Jean-Paul Sartre believed man's project is to become God.
A human being is that which needs self-transcendence.
Koëstenbaum held that love is an "a priori category by which the religious person unifies his world and overcomes the opposing otherness and attains self-fulfillment" (31).
Religious experience characteristically involves some means by which a person can self-transcend or "go beyond his own frustrating limitations" (32)
Chris Linehan: Then would not a failure to transcend one's self be a failed religious experience, but a religious experience nonetheless?
The Necessity of the Transcendent Other in Religious Experience
In order to have a religious experience one must believe that a Transcendent thing exists outside of one's self.
Religion is an "I-Thou" relationship, not an "I-I" relationship.
The Unity of Meaning of the Transcendent
Friedrich Schleiermacher argued that multiplicity of content of experience and expression is necessary for the complete manifestation of religion.
William James held that this plurality is necessary to fit the plurality of human needs.
William James argued that all religions have three common characteristics:
1) That the visible world is part of a more spiritual universe
2) that union with that higher universe is our end
3) prayer is a process wherein work is done and spiritual energy flows in and produces effects within the phenomenal world
James held that the basic cognitive content of all religions have:
1) an awareness that there is something wrong with us as we naturally are
2) an awareness that we are saved from this wrongness by making proper connection with higher powers
Religion and the transcendent
Religious experience implies a dimension that is called the Transcendent
The transcendent is with whom religious experience happens. The transcendent is many things and not limited to any conceptualizations of a personal or impersonal God.
Religious experience always involves a transcendent dimension.
Religious experience involves both self-transcendence and a transcendent realm.
"In order to go beyond, there must be a Beyond (real or imagined) toward which as in which the religious experience moves" (35).
The Transcendent discloses itself and evokes a response from the individual experiencing the Transcendent.
Religious Experience involves a total commitment
Religious experience involves an a awareness of the Transcendent and an awareness of it as ultimate and as demanding an ultimate commitment.
In religion, individuals give a total commitment to the whole universe.
Experience is religious in nature if it involves ultimate commitment to the Ultimate.
Religious experience involves at least two fundamental factors:
1) An awareness of the Transcendent
2) a total commitment to it as the ultimate
"Religious experience is universal. It involves two basic elements: an awareness of the Transcendent and a total commitment to the Transcendent" (39).
The Transcendent is necessary to the fulfillment of man's fundamental drive to transcend.
Philosophy of Religion 2nd Edition
Norman Geisler & Winfried Corduan
Part 2 The Characteristics of Religious Experience
In order for an experience to be a religious experience it must:
1) Involve awareness of the Transcendent
2) Involve a person making an ultimate commitment to the Transcendent
Religious Experience Involves an Awareness of the Transcendent
Whatever the description or name for the Transcendent, there is something, real or unreal, which goes beyond the individual in which or by which he transcends his finite conditions.
Some Paradigms for the Meaning of Transcendence
Paul M. van Buren believed that all language used as God-language or its equivalent is a dead language.
Ian T. Ramsey holds that metaphors and odd words have a power of disclosure. These odd phrases, metaphors and tautologies have deeper meanings than can be linguistically expressed.
The need for self-transcendence
"Religious experience involves the need to transcend the unalterable displeasures of life" (30).
Peter Koëstenbaum's description of religion: "man's effort to do something about the desperate condition of his own finitude" (30-31).
Sigmund Freud depicted religion as the human search for a cosmic father.
Rudolf Bultmann defined religion as a human longing to escape this world by discovering a sphere above this world.
Walter Kaufmann - Religion is rooted in man's goal to transcend himself. Man is the ape that wants to be god and man is the God-intoxicated ape.
Jean-Paul Sartre believed man's project is to become God.
A human being is that which needs self-transcendence.
Koëstenbaum held that love is an "a priori category by which the religious person unifies his world and overcomes the opposing otherness and attains self-fulfillment" (31).
Religious experience characteristically involves some means by which a person can self-transcend or "go beyond his own frustrating limitations" (32)
Chris Linehan: Then would not a failure to transcend one's self be a failed religious experience, but a religious experience nonetheless?
The Necessity of the Transcendent Other in Religious Experience
In order to have a religious experience one must believe that a Transcendent thing exists outside of one's self.
Religion is an "I-Thou" relationship, not an "I-I" relationship.
The Unity of Meaning of the Transcendent
Friedrich Schleiermacher argued that multiplicity of content of experience and expression is necessary for the complete manifestation of religion.
William James held that this plurality is necessary to fit the plurality of human needs.
William James argued that all religions have three common characteristics:
1) That the visible world is part of a more spiritual universe
2) that union with that higher universe is our end
3) prayer is a process wherein work is done and spiritual energy flows in and produces effects within the phenomenal world
James held that the basic cognitive content of all religions have:
1) an awareness that there is something wrong with us as we naturally are
2) an awareness that we are saved from this wrongness by making proper connection with higher powers
Religion and the transcendent
Religious experience implies a dimension that is called the Transcendent
The transcendent is with whom religious experience happens. The transcendent is many things and not limited to any conceptualizations of a personal or impersonal God.
Religious experience always involves a transcendent dimension.
Religious experience involves both self-transcendence and a transcendent realm.
"In order to go beyond, there must be a Beyond (real or imagined) toward which as in which the religious experience moves" (35).
The Transcendent discloses itself and evokes a response from the individual experiencing the Transcendent.
Religious Experience involves a total commitment
Religious experience involves an a awareness of the Transcendent and an awareness of it as ultimate and as demanding an ultimate commitment.
In religion, individuals give a total commitment to the whole universe.
Experience is religious in nature if it involves ultimate commitment to the Ultimate.
Religious experience involves at least two fundamental factors:
1) An awareness of the Transcendent
2) a total commitment to it as the ultimate
"Religious experience is universal. It involves two basic elements: an awareness of the Transcendent and a total commitment to the Transcendent" (39).
The Transcendent is necessary to the fulfillment of man's fundamental drive to transcend.
God and Experience
(Originally written February 27, 2007 in Book 13)
Philosophy of Religion 2nd Edition
Norman Geisler & Winfried Corduan
Wipf and Stock Publishers
Eugene, OR 2003
Part 1 - God and Experience
1. The Nature of Religious Experience
"Religion is an experiential issue, not a merely intellectual one" (Geisler, 13).
The Meaning of Experience
Experience is the awareness of a subject that individuals have.
Experience can be viewed two ways:
1) Generally
2) Specifically
General experience is the totality of consciousness.
Specific experience is the experience of a certain event in one's life.
Experience in general is the basis for particular experiences.
Primary awareness is the most basic level of experience. It's the basic unreflective consciousness of an individual.
Secondary awareness is the consciousness of being conscious. Remembering, reflecting, relating and reasoning occur in secondary awareness.
Secondary awareness presupposes primary and awareness.
The Meaning of Religion
Religion is difficult to define in a universally accepted way.
By using Wittgenstein's notion of "family resemblance", philosophers of religion can state that no two religions have identical characteristics, but all religions exhibit typical characteristics to some degree.
Awareness of the Transcendent is usually included in most definitions of religion.
There are at least two senses in which religious experience involves transcendence:
1) Self-Transcendence: the process of overcoming the conditions of one's finitude
2) The Transcendent: the object of religious experience
The Christian God is one form of the Transcendent. The two terms are not equivalent.
Transcendent means two things:
1) Going beyond one's immediate consciousness while is somehow always known to be there.
2) Religious transcendent is the ultimate, that which is Beyond beyond where no more beyonds can be sought for.
Religious Experience Distinguished from other experiences
Religious experience is often closely associated with three other types of experience:
1) Moral
2) Aesthetic
3) Secular
Religious experience in contrast to moral experience
Some equate religious experience and moral experience. Kant defined religion as "the recognition of all duties as divine commands".
Soren Kierkegaard drew the sharpest distinction between a moral duty and a religious duty. Moral duties express one's universal duty, but that religious duties hold the individual as a particular as higher than the universal. Basically Kierkegaard claimed that a moral experience responds to a moral law, whereas a religious experience responds to the moral Law-giver.
Morality is a responsibility to the world; religion is a responsibility to beyond the world. "Morality tells a person what he ought to do; religion can help him do it" (20).
A religious experience has a broader scope of commitment, the commitment is different in kind, the object is higher, and its object has the power to overcome and unify.
"Morality is a matter of duty; religion is a matter also of desire" (21).
Moral mistakes can be overcome by religious experience.
Religious Experience in contrast to Aesthetic Experience
Schleiermacher states that science is speculative, art is practical and religion is intuitive.
Kierkegaard views the aesthetic, moral and religious as three dimensions of one's life:
Aesthetic - level of feeling
Ethical - level of deciding
Religious - level of existing
Aesthetic is simply knowing, religion is what one chooses to live.
"Aesthetics involves a sense of wonder and amazement; religion involves a sense of worship and adoration" (24).
The religious experience experiences what is ultimate; the aesthetic experience, regardless of how profound, is not ultimate.
Religious Experience in contrast to purely secular experience
There is a difference between humanistic and secular experience.
Humanistic experience can still be an experience of that which is transcendent.
"The fact that purely secular experiences are difficult to find is testimony to how incurably religious man is" (25).
That which is unable or unwilling to transcend in any direction is non-religious.
The transcendent is difficult to find, so some have given up the search. Others are completely unwilling to search for it.
Some refuse to commit to the Transcendent because they wish to honor themselves as the ultimate.
There are two ways in which a person can be irreligious or purely humanistic:
1) He is unable to see the Transcendent
2) He is unwilling to submit to it
The universality and reality of religious experience
Few, if any, have attained a state of complete secularism. "Most secular experience is quasi religious" (26)
Human kind as a whole has been religious. "To be human means to reach toward God" (27).
"The mere universality of religious experience is by no means a guarantee of its reality or a sure indication of its unreality" (27).
Philosophy of Religion 2nd Edition
Norman Geisler & Winfried Corduan
Wipf and Stock Publishers
Eugene, OR 2003
Part 1 - God and Experience
1. The Nature of Religious Experience
"Religion is an experiential issue, not a merely intellectual one" (Geisler, 13).
The Meaning of Experience
Experience is the awareness of a subject that individuals have.
Experience can be viewed two ways:
1) Generally
2) Specifically
General experience is the totality of consciousness.
Specific experience is the experience of a certain event in one's life.
Experience in general is the basis for particular experiences.
Primary awareness is the most basic level of experience. It's the basic unreflective consciousness of an individual.
Secondary awareness is the consciousness of being conscious. Remembering, reflecting, relating and reasoning occur in secondary awareness.
Secondary awareness presupposes primary and awareness.
The Meaning of Religion
Religion is difficult to define in a universally accepted way.
By using Wittgenstein's notion of "family resemblance", philosophers of religion can state that no two religions have identical characteristics, but all religions exhibit typical characteristics to some degree.
Awareness of the Transcendent is usually included in most definitions of religion.
There are at least two senses in which religious experience involves transcendence:
1) Self-Transcendence: the process of overcoming the conditions of one's finitude
2) The Transcendent: the object of religious experience
The Christian God is one form of the Transcendent. The two terms are not equivalent.
Transcendent means two things:
1) Going beyond one's immediate consciousness while is somehow always known to be there.
2) Religious transcendent is the ultimate, that which is Beyond beyond where no more beyonds can be sought for.
Religious Experience Distinguished from other experiences
Religious experience is often closely associated with three other types of experience:
1) Moral
2) Aesthetic
3) Secular
Religious experience in contrast to moral experience
Some equate religious experience and moral experience. Kant defined religion as "the recognition of all duties as divine commands".
Soren Kierkegaard drew the sharpest distinction between a moral duty and a religious duty. Moral duties express one's universal duty, but that religious duties hold the individual as a particular as higher than the universal. Basically Kierkegaard claimed that a moral experience responds to a moral law, whereas a religious experience responds to the moral Law-giver.
Morality is a responsibility to the world; religion is a responsibility to beyond the world. "Morality tells a person what he ought to do; religion can help him do it" (20).
A religious experience has a broader scope of commitment, the commitment is different in kind, the object is higher, and its object has the power to overcome and unify.
"Morality is a matter of duty; religion is a matter also of desire" (21).
Moral mistakes can be overcome by religious experience.
Religious Experience in contrast to Aesthetic Experience
Schleiermacher states that science is speculative, art is practical and religion is intuitive.
Kierkegaard views the aesthetic, moral and religious as three dimensions of one's life:
Aesthetic - level of feeling
Ethical - level of deciding
Religious - level of existing
Aesthetic is simply knowing, religion is what one chooses to live.
"Aesthetics involves a sense of wonder and amazement; religion involves a sense of worship and adoration" (24).
The religious experience experiences what is ultimate; the aesthetic experience, regardless of how profound, is not ultimate.
Religious Experience in contrast to purely secular experience
There is a difference between humanistic and secular experience.
Humanistic experience can still be an experience of that which is transcendent.
"The fact that purely secular experiences are difficult to find is testimony to how incurably religious man is" (25).
That which is unable or unwilling to transcend in any direction is non-religious.
The transcendent is difficult to find, so some have given up the search. Others are completely unwilling to search for it.
Some refuse to commit to the Transcendent because they wish to honor themselves as the ultimate.
There are two ways in which a person can be irreligious or purely humanistic:
1) He is unable to see the Transcendent
2) He is unwilling to submit to it
The universality and reality of religious experience
Few, if any, have attained a state of complete secularism. "Most secular experience is quasi religious" (26)
Human kind as a whole has been religious. "To be human means to reach toward God" (27).
"The mere universality of religious experience is by no means a guarantee of its reality or a sure indication of its unreality" (27).
Sunday, February 25, 2007
Chapter 14 - Pocket Guide to World Religions
(Originally written February 25, 2007 in Book 14)
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 14 - Sikhism
Name
Sikhism comes from the Punjab word "Sikh" which means "a disciple".
A Sikh is a disciple of the Guru Nanak, a 16th century guru.
Numbers and Distribution
There are 23 million Sikhs in the world, most of whom live in the Indian state of Punjab.
There as many as 250,000 Sikhs in North America.
Symbols
There are two unique symbols of Sikhism.
The Khanda represents the Sikh faith to the outside world. Khanda means "double-edged sword"
The Chakkar is a circular throwing weapon.
The Khanda and the chakkar together symbolizes the unity of God and his all-pervasive presence.
The Kirpans are the two swords on the side standing for the spiritual and political dimensions of the Sikh community.
There is also the symbol that means "one and only one" called the "Ekankar".
History
Sikhism began as an attempted healing of Muslims and Hindus in 16th century India.
Guru Nanak (1469-1538) had a Hindu father and Muslim mother. He taught that, "There is no Hindu and there is no Muslim" (Corduan, 129).
Nanak's followers saw him as a teacher of reconciliation and as the embodiment of divine light.
Conflict between the Sikhs and Muslims erupted and Sikhism changed from a community aiming at peace and unity into a virtual army.
There were 10 gurus during the first 2 centuries of Sikhism.
The 5th Guru, Guru Arjan Dev collected the hymns and chants of all the gurus and the Granth Sahib, written by Nanak.
The Granth Sahib means "exalted book" and is the holy book of Sikhism.
Arjan Dev was the first martyr of Sikhism. He was boiled in a vat of water by the Muslim ruler.
Hargobind, Arjan Dev's son, established the military side of Sikhism.
Gabind Singh, the 10th Guru, declared himself the last guru and that the Granth would be the only source of God's embodiment from then on.
The Sikhs allied themselves against the Muslims and Hindus with the British, but fought against the British in the "Sikh war" of 1846.
When India and Pakistan became their own colonies in 1947, the Sikh area of Punjab was fought over by both sides.
In 1984, a group of Sikhs took over its own Golden Temple in Amritsar, the original headquarters of Sikhism. Prime Minister Indira Ghandi sent troops to liberate the temple. After much bloodshed, Indira prevailed, but she was assassinated by her own Sikh bodyguards a few months later.
Scriptures
The holy book of Sikhism is the Granth.
The Granth is recognized as most whole in the form of Arjan Dev's collection.
The Granth is the embodiment of God.
Major Beliefs
Nanak sought to find spiritual truth behind the external forms of Islam and Hinduism.
He took Hinduism's belief in Karma and reincarnation and meshed it with Islam's belief in one true God. He stated that God should not be represented by idols.
He taught that we escaped the continuous reincarnation cycles by living a life of divine virtues and becoming one with God.
Nanak believed that God ought not be limited by what one specific religion teaches about him.
Subgroups
There is one major subgroup which virtually every one belongs to. The Khalsa, the military order begun by the 6th guru, Guru Hargobind.
Worship practices
There is a simple prayer service of chanting the Granth.
At the end of the chant everyone gets a sweet made of nuts and honey.
At this point everyone gets together for a meal. Everyone sits on the floor together eating the same food, symbolizing the equality of all human beings.
Religious Buildings
A Sikh temple is called a gurdwara. A gurdwara is usually a plain building on the inside and out. But the biggest ones, like the Golden Temple in Amritsar or the Gurdwara Bangla Sahib in Dehli are huge and highly ornate.
A gurdwara is usually domed and has the Sikh symbol displayed prominently.
A gurdwara has an altar for the Granth and a bed for the Granth to sleep in.
Non-Sikhs are welcome at the gurdwaras but they must wash their hands and feet and cover their heads.
A gurdwara must have a kitchen and a dining area for the important communal meal.
Home Practices
Devout Sikhs recite lengthy prayers every day, sometimes several times a day.
Homes and cars are often decorated with pictures of gurus, especially Guru Nanak. These pictures are not venerated because of Sikhism's anti-idolatry stance.
Clothing
Members of the Khalsa have 5 distinct features:
1) Long, uncut hair and beard-covered
2) A wooden comb inserted into the hair (Kanga)
3) An iron bracelet (Kara)
4) Shorts (Kachara)
5) A sword (Kirpan)
Diet
Fasting is forbidden because it is seen as a false piety
Calendar
Sikhs have many celebrations. The ten gurus' birthdays, the days of becoming a guru, and their days of death.
Until 1998, Sikhism observed a lunar calendar beginning with the birth of Guru Nanak in 1469. It switched to a solar year in 1998, but maintained New Year's as March 14. On March 14, 2005, the Sikh year 537 began.
Community is emphasized in Sikhism.
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 14 - Sikhism
Name
Sikhism comes from the Punjab word "Sikh" which means "a disciple".
A Sikh is a disciple of the Guru Nanak, a 16th century guru.
Numbers and Distribution
There are 23 million Sikhs in the world, most of whom live in the Indian state of Punjab.
There as many as 250,000 Sikhs in North America.
Symbols
There are two unique symbols of Sikhism.
The Khanda represents the Sikh faith to the outside world. Khanda means "double-edged sword"
The Chakkar is a circular throwing weapon.
The Khanda and the chakkar together symbolizes the unity of God and his all-pervasive presence.
The Kirpans are the two swords on the side standing for the spiritual and political dimensions of the Sikh community.
There is also the symbol that means "one and only one" called the "Ekankar".
History
Sikhism began as an attempted healing of Muslims and Hindus in 16th century India.
Guru Nanak (1469-1538) had a Hindu father and Muslim mother. He taught that, "There is no Hindu and there is no Muslim" (Corduan, 129).
Nanak's followers saw him as a teacher of reconciliation and as the embodiment of divine light.
Conflict between the Sikhs and Muslims erupted and Sikhism changed from a community aiming at peace and unity into a virtual army.
There were 10 gurus during the first 2 centuries of Sikhism.
The 5th Guru, Guru Arjan Dev collected the hymns and chants of all the gurus and the Granth Sahib, written by Nanak.
The Granth Sahib means "exalted book" and is the holy book of Sikhism.
Arjan Dev was the first martyr of Sikhism. He was boiled in a vat of water by the Muslim ruler.
Hargobind, Arjan Dev's son, established the military side of Sikhism.
Gabind Singh, the 10th Guru, declared himself the last guru and that the Granth would be the only source of God's embodiment from then on.
The Sikhs allied themselves against the Muslims and Hindus with the British, but fought against the British in the "Sikh war" of 1846.
When India and Pakistan became their own colonies in 1947, the Sikh area of Punjab was fought over by both sides.
In 1984, a group of Sikhs took over its own Golden Temple in Amritsar, the original headquarters of Sikhism. Prime Minister Indira Ghandi sent troops to liberate the temple. After much bloodshed, Indira prevailed, but she was assassinated by her own Sikh bodyguards a few months later.
Scriptures
The holy book of Sikhism is the Granth.
The Granth is recognized as most whole in the form of Arjan Dev's collection.
The Granth is the embodiment of God.
Major Beliefs
Nanak sought to find spiritual truth behind the external forms of Islam and Hinduism.
He took Hinduism's belief in Karma and reincarnation and meshed it with Islam's belief in one true God. He stated that God should not be represented by idols.
He taught that we escaped the continuous reincarnation cycles by living a life of divine virtues and becoming one with God.
Nanak believed that God ought not be limited by what one specific religion teaches about him.
Subgroups
There is one major subgroup which virtually every one belongs to. The Khalsa, the military order begun by the 6th guru, Guru Hargobind.
Worship practices
There is a simple prayer service of chanting the Granth.
At the end of the chant everyone gets a sweet made of nuts and honey.
At this point everyone gets together for a meal. Everyone sits on the floor together eating the same food, symbolizing the equality of all human beings.
Religious Buildings
A Sikh temple is called a gurdwara. A gurdwara is usually a plain building on the inside and out. But the biggest ones, like the Golden Temple in Amritsar or the Gurdwara Bangla Sahib in Dehli are huge and highly ornate.
A gurdwara is usually domed and has the Sikh symbol displayed prominently.
A gurdwara has an altar for the Granth and a bed for the Granth to sleep in.
Non-Sikhs are welcome at the gurdwaras but they must wash their hands and feet and cover their heads.
A gurdwara must have a kitchen and a dining area for the important communal meal.
Home Practices
Devout Sikhs recite lengthy prayers every day, sometimes several times a day.
Homes and cars are often decorated with pictures of gurus, especially Guru Nanak. These pictures are not venerated because of Sikhism's anti-idolatry stance.
Clothing
Members of the Khalsa have 5 distinct features:
1) Long, uncut hair and beard-covered
2) A wooden comb inserted into the hair (Kanga)
3) An iron bracelet (Kara)
4) Shorts (Kachara)
5) A sword (Kirpan)
Diet
Fasting is forbidden because it is seen as a false piety
Calendar
Sikhs have many celebrations. The ten gurus' birthdays, the days of becoming a guru, and their days of death.
Until 1998, Sikhism observed a lunar calendar beginning with the birth of Guru Nanak in 1469. It switched to a solar year in 1998, but maintained New Year's as March 14. On March 14, 2005, the Sikh year 537 began.
Community is emphasized in Sikhism.
Chapter 13 - Pocket Guide to World Religions
(Originally written February 25, 2007 in Book 14)
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 13 - Shinto
Name
This Japanese religion comes from the Chinese term, "shen-dao" which means, "the way of the gods".
The Japanese equivalent of "shen-dao" is "kami-no-mihi".
It should never be referred to as Shintoism.
Numbers and Distribution
"Nearly all Japanese people are influenced by Shinto, but few would declare Shinto to be their religion" (Corduan, 121).
Many Japanese combine Shinto and Buddhism into their faith.
There are only 3 or 4 million pure Shinto practitioners, but over 100 million who incorporate parts of Shinto into their belief structure.
Shinto is confined sole to Japan and is not readily exportable.
Symbols
The most prominent symbol is the torii gate.
The Japanese flag is also a Shinto symbol standing for the rising sun and the sun goddess, Amaterasu
History
Shinto goes back to pre-historic times. It was established long before the 6th century B.C. when Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism came to Japan.
Buddhism slowly replaced Shinto as the dominant religion in Japan but in 1868 Shinto was reinstated as mandatory practice for all of Japan.
The end of WWII saw the end of the emperor as a god and Shinto declined.
Scriptures
There are three major writings of Shinto, but these are descriptive rather than Shinto rule books.
1) The Kojiki
- Shinto Mythology
- Collected by Yasumaro in A.D. 712
- Tells how the gods (kami) came into being
- tells how the god Izanagi and goddess Izanami married and created the Japanese islands
- tells how Amaterasu become the ancestor of the emperor of Japan
2) The Nihongi
- finalized by Yasumaro in A.D. 725
3) The Amatsu Norito
- collection of prayers and rituals of Shinto
Major Beliefs
Shinto is not a set of beliefs that lead to salvation. It is a set of practices to maintain harmony with the Spiritual world.
There is a spirit world; individual spiritual forces called Kami indwell in this world
A Kami can be many things:
1) impersonal spiritual force that is latent in nature
2) personal spirits that inhabit our environment
3) personal gods
People can relate to the Kami and harness their power by respecting them. If one offends the Kami they run the risk of being thwarted by the Kami.
Subgroups
State Shinto - the emperor is divine (officially repudiated)
Shrine Shinto - holy sites
Domestic Shinto - practices that are part of the traditional Shinto home
Sectarian Shinto - the new Japanese religion
Worship practices
One must offer prayers and sacrifices to the Kami.
One must inform the Kami of one's plans because the Kami is unhappy when it is surprised.
Religious Buildings
Shinto buildings are called shrines
The Shinto Shrines often have:
1) A torii gate entrance
2) a left curved walkway
3) The outer part (haiden) to be entered by worshippers
4) A ball with a rope to get the Kami's attention
5) The inner part (honden) is reserved for priests
6) Inside the honden there are Shintai, the sacred objects of that shrine's particular Kami
Japanese couples are married in Shinto Shrines, but funerals take place at Buddhist temples.
Home Practices
A home should have a but sudan, a shelf with a statue of a Buddha.
It should also have a Kamidan, a shelf with prayer objects dedicated to the Kami.
Clothing
There are not regulations on clothing, but Shinto festivals often have Shinto practitioners wearing traditional Japanese clothing.
Diet
There are no regulations on what not to eat, but red meat cannot be offered as a sacrifice.
Calendar
Japan operates on the Gregorian calendar.
New Year's is January 1st and is a day of purification.
February 3rd is the beginning of spring.
March 4 is Doll Day when girls display their dolls.
April 8 is the birthday of the Buddha and the day when the Kami descend from the mountains.
May 5 is Boys' day when boys are recognized
June 30 is the renewal of purification.
In the middle of July there is a time for commemorating the dead.
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 13 - Shinto
Name
This Japanese religion comes from the Chinese term, "shen-dao" which means, "the way of the gods".
The Japanese equivalent of "shen-dao" is "kami-no-mihi".
It should never be referred to as Shintoism.
Numbers and Distribution
"Nearly all Japanese people are influenced by Shinto, but few would declare Shinto to be their religion" (Corduan, 121).
Many Japanese combine Shinto and Buddhism into their faith.
There are only 3 or 4 million pure Shinto practitioners, but over 100 million who incorporate parts of Shinto into their belief structure.
Shinto is confined sole to Japan and is not readily exportable.
Symbols
The most prominent symbol is the torii gate.
The Japanese flag is also a Shinto symbol standing for the rising sun and the sun goddess, Amaterasu
History
Shinto goes back to pre-historic times. It was established long before the 6th century B.C. when Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism came to Japan.
Buddhism slowly replaced Shinto as the dominant religion in Japan but in 1868 Shinto was reinstated as mandatory practice for all of Japan.
The end of WWII saw the end of the emperor as a god and Shinto declined.
Scriptures
There are three major writings of Shinto, but these are descriptive rather than Shinto rule books.
1) The Kojiki
- Shinto Mythology
- Collected by Yasumaro in A.D. 712
- Tells how the gods (kami) came into being
- tells how the god Izanagi and goddess Izanami married and created the Japanese islands
- tells how Amaterasu become the ancestor of the emperor of Japan
2) The Nihongi
- finalized by Yasumaro in A.D. 725
3) The Amatsu Norito
- collection of prayers and rituals of Shinto
Major Beliefs
Shinto is not a set of beliefs that lead to salvation. It is a set of practices to maintain harmony with the Spiritual world.
There is a spirit world; individual spiritual forces called Kami indwell in this world
A Kami can be many things:
1) impersonal spiritual force that is latent in nature
2) personal spirits that inhabit our environment
3) personal gods
People can relate to the Kami and harness their power by respecting them. If one offends the Kami they run the risk of being thwarted by the Kami.
Subgroups
State Shinto - the emperor is divine (officially repudiated)
Shrine Shinto - holy sites
Domestic Shinto - practices that are part of the traditional Shinto home
Sectarian Shinto - the new Japanese religion
Worship practices
One must offer prayers and sacrifices to the Kami.
One must inform the Kami of one's plans because the Kami is unhappy when it is surprised.
Religious Buildings
Shinto buildings are called shrines
The Shinto Shrines often have:
1) A torii gate entrance
2) a left curved walkway
3) The outer part (haiden) to be entered by worshippers
4) A ball with a rope to get the Kami's attention
5) The inner part (honden) is reserved for priests
6) Inside the honden there are Shintai, the sacred objects of that shrine's particular Kami
Japanese couples are married in Shinto Shrines, but funerals take place at Buddhist temples.
Home Practices
A home should have a but sudan, a shelf with a statue of a Buddha.
It should also have a Kamidan, a shelf with prayer objects dedicated to the Kami.
Clothing
There are not regulations on clothing, but Shinto festivals often have Shinto practitioners wearing traditional Japanese clothing.
Diet
There are no regulations on what not to eat, but red meat cannot be offered as a sacrifice.
Calendar
Japan operates on the Gregorian calendar.
New Year's is January 1st and is a day of purification.
February 3rd is the beginning of spring.
March 4 is Doll Day when girls display their dolls.
April 8 is the birthday of the Buddha and the day when the Kami descend from the mountains.
May 5 is Boys' day when boys are recognized
June 30 is the renewal of purification.
In the middle of July there is a time for commemorating the dead.
Friday, February 23, 2007
Chapter 12 - Pocket Guide to World Religions
(Originally written February 23, 2007 in Book 14)
Chapter 12 - Parsiism (Zoroastrianism)
Name
Zoroastrianism is named after its founder, Zoroaster, who lived in the 6th century BC.
Most of its adherents moved from Persia to India and became known as Parsis.
It was also called Mazdaism after their deity, Ahura Mazda.
Numbers and Distribution
There are only about 150,000 Parsis in the world and most of them live in Bombay, India.
Symbols
Parsiism's symbols go back to Ancient Persia.
The most common symbol is the fravahar. The fravahar is a winged man with many speculations as to its meanings. It could stand for Ahura Mazda, Zoroaster, the Persian kings, or most likely, every individual fravashi, their primordial soul.
History.
The prophet Zoroaster lived 273 years before Alexander according to ancient Parsi sources.
Zoroaster was a prophet who worshipped many gods called daevas.
When Zoroaster was 30 he had a vision that told him the daevas were not gods, but evil spirits. He learned there was one true God, Ahura Mazda ("Exalted Lord").
Zoroaster's teachings were rejected until he miraculously cured King Hystaspas' favorite horse.
After King Cyrus, the kings of the Persian empire followed Zoroaster's teachings until Alexander conquered the Persians. Zoroastrianism came back and flourished from 200-600 AD until the Muslims conquered them. From there they moved to India.
Scriptures
There are many scriptures, but most have been lost. The Avesta is the remaining important book.
The Avesta contains the life of Zoroaster, prayers, liturgy and incantations.
Major beliefs
There is a continual struggle between good and evil.
Ahura Mazda is truth and light.
Ahura Mazda express himself through his holy spirit and through 6 aspects of his personhood:
1) Good thought
2) Righteousness
3) Power
4) Perfection
5) Piety
6) Immortality
Ahriman is the opposite of Ahura Mazda. He is falsehood, unrighteousness and darkness.
The Persian gods are considered to be evil spirits who sway people to Ahriman's side.
Human beings must stay morally and ritually pure by not touching any human waste or dead persons.
Morally and ritually pure humans help Ahura Mazda triumph over Ahriman.
Subgroups
The Zoroastrians who remained in Persia after the Muslim conquest are called Gabars. Those who left for India are called Parsis. The differences are merely culturally, not religious.
Worship Practices
Worship serves to exalt Ahura Mazda and to ward off daevas.
The Avesta is chanted in services and a sacred flame is maintained. Priests drink a drink of sacred haoma plant.
Religious Buildings
Parsi temples are called 'fire-temples'.
Non-Zoroastrians are not allowed inside of temples because they have been persecuted for 1400 years.
Home practices
A Parsi home contains a small altar to burn incense and maintain a small sandalwood fire.
Zoroastrians must pray five times.
The Navjot is a coming-of-age ceremony for all Zoroastrian boys and girls. Children declare themselves to be Zoroastrians, repudiate daevas and wear the sacred shirt and belt.
Zoroastrians do not touch dead bodies, or pollute the ground with them or pollute fire by burning them. They allow them to deteriorate on elevated, circular platforms (towers of silence). Vultures eat the corpses.
Clothing
Paris wear an undergarment called a sudra and a belt called the kutsi belt.
The sudra has a pocket to collect each person's good deeds. The belt is white and is wrapped around the wearer three times.
Diet
None
Calendar
The Zoroastrian calendar is solar. 12 months of 30 days (plus 5 to keep with the West).
On the 6th day of the 1st month (either August or March, depending on Gabars or Parsis) they celebrate Zoroaster's birth.
Chapter 12 - Parsiism (Zoroastrianism)
Name
Zoroastrianism is named after its founder, Zoroaster, who lived in the 6th century BC.
Most of its adherents moved from Persia to India and became known as Parsis.
It was also called Mazdaism after their deity, Ahura Mazda.
Numbers and Distribution
There are only about 150,000 Parsis in the world and most of them live in Bombay, India.
Symbols
Parsiism's symbols go back to Ancient Persia.
The most common symbol is the fravahar. The fravahar is a winged man with many speculations as to its meanings. It could stand for Ahura Mazda, Zoroaster, the Persian kings, or most likely, every individual fravashi, their primordial soul.
History.
The prophet Zoroaster lived 273 years before Alexander according to ancient Parsi sources.
Zoroaster was a prophet who worshipped many gods called daevas.
When Zoroaster was 30 he had a vision that told him the daevas were not gods, but evil spirits. He learned there was one true God, Ahura Mazda ("Exalted Lord").
Zoroaster's teachings were rejected until he miraculously cured King Hystaspas' favorite horse.
After King Cyrus, the kings of the Persian empire followed Zoroaster's teachings until Alexander conquered the Persians. Zoroastrianism came back and flourished from 200-600 AD until the Muslims conquered them. From there they moved to India.
Scriptures
There are many scriptures, but most have been lost. The Avesta is the remaining important book.
The Avesta contains the life of Zoroaster, prayers, liturgy and incantations.
Major beliefs
There is a continual struggle between good and evil.
Ahura Mazda is truth and light.
Ahura Mazda express himself through his holy spirit and through 6 aspects of his personhood:
1) Good thought
2) Righteousness
3) Power
4) Perfection
5) Piety
6) Immortality
Ahriman is the opposite of Ahura Mazda. He is falsehood, unrighteousness and darkness.
The Persian gods are considered to be evil spirits who sway people to Ahriman's side.
Human beings must stay morally and ritually pure by not touching any human waste or dead persons.
Morally and ritually pure humans help Ahura Mazda triumph over Ahriman.
Subgroups
The Zoroastrians who remained in Persia after the Muslim conquest are called Gabars. Those who left for India are called Parsis. The differences are merely culturally, not religious.
Worship Practices
Worship serves to exalt Ahura Mazda and to ward off daevas.
The Avesta is chanted in services and a sacred flame is maintained. Priests drink a drink of sacred haoma plant.
Religious Buildings
Parsi temples are called 'fire-temples'.
Non-Zoroastrians are not allowed inside of temples because they have been persecuted for 1400 years.
Home practices
A Parsi home contains a small altar to burn incense and maintain a small sandalwood fire.
Zoroastrians must pray five times.
The Navjot is a coming-of-age ceremony for all Zoroastrian boys and girls. Children declare themselves to be Zoroastrians, repudiate daevas and wear the sacred shirt and belt.
Zoroastrians do not touch dead bodies, or pollute the ground with them or pollute fire by burning them. They allow them to deteriorate on elevated, circular platforms (towers of silence). Vultures eat the corpses.
Clothing
Paris wear an undergarment called a sudra and a belt called the kutsi belt.
The sudra has a pocket to collect each person's good deeds. The belt is white and is wrapped around the wearer three times.
Diet
None
Calendar
The Zoroastrian calendar is solar. 12 months of 30 days (plus 5 to keep with the West).
On the 6th day of the 1st month (either August or March, depending on Gabars or Parsis) they celebrate Zoroaster's birth.
Thursday, February 22, 2007
Chapter 11 - Pocket Guide to World Religions (B)
(Originally written February 22, 2007 in Book 14)
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Winfried Corduan
Chapter 11 (continued)
Jehovah's Witnesses
Founded by Charles Taze Russell in 19th century America.
Born as a prophecy movement within Christianity.
Believe one's soul lies in their blood.
Jehovah's Witnesses tries to be considered a legitimate form of Christianity, but their beliefs are truly incompatible.
Juce
Juce is the official religion of North Korea and is a spiritualized form of Marxism.
Mormonism
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints began in 1830 in America, under Joseph Smith.
Smith claimed to receive new revelations in tablets from the angel Moroni. Moroni told Smith that none of the churches of his day represented Christ.
The Book of Mormon tells the story of how Jesus came to America after the resurrection.
Mormons hold that human beings eventually become gods and rule over their own planets.
Nation of Islam
The American Black Muslim movement.
Founded in 1930 by W.D. Ford and Elijah Muhammad (Poole) who claimed to be the incarnations of Allah and Muhammad.
The Nation of Islam holds that blacks are the only true humans and all other races are evil imitations.
Malcolm X realigned the Nation of Islam with more traditional Islamic teachings. But, Louis Farrakhan and 20,000 followers still adhere to the Nation's more radical teachings.
Rastafarianism
Began in the 1930's with the coronation of the Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie.
Some preachers in Jamaica, under the influence of Marcus Garvey's philosophy of black self-determination saw the coronation as the coming of liberation for African people.
They saw Selassie as an incarnation of god.
There are about 600,000 Rastafarians.
A part of Rastafarian worship includes sacramental smoking of marijuana (ganja).
Scientology
Resembles eastern thought like Tibetan Buddhism in certain ways.
Founded by L. Ron Hubbard, an American science fiction writer.
It's aim is to bring about, "increased awareness and spiritual freedom for the individual and rehabilitation of his basic decency, power and ability" (Corduan, 111).
Scientology is known for the book of Dianetics. Hubbard explains his conception of the relationship between the body and soul here.
Soka Gakkai
A Japanese form of Buddhism beginning with the Japanese monk Nichiren (1222-1282). Nichiren claimed the primacy of the Lotus Sutra.
There are about 10 million followers of Nichiren in Japan and 1.5 million followers elsewhere.
Tenrikyo
An offshoot of Shinto.
Tenrikyo means "sect of Tenri".
Founded by a female faith healer in the 19th century. Nakayama Miki claimed to be possessed by the god Oyagami.
She taught suffering was due to spiritual dust accumulating on human souls. This dust is wiped away by devotion to Oyagami.
Followers still believe that Miki is alive today.
Unification Church
Founded by Sun Myung Moon in Korea in the 1950's.
Combined Eastern ideas with Christian teachings.
Believes that spiritual redemption was done by Christ, but full physical redemption would be carried out by the second Messiah, Sun Myung Moon.
It has about 3 million members.
Wahhabite Islam
Began as an 8th century reform movement under Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab in Saudi Arabia.
Al-Wahhab believed Islam had been corrupted by superstitions.
When Saudi Arabia became a nation in 1932, King Abdul Aziz al Saud implemented the harsh Wahhabite principles.
Wahhabite schools eventually produced the Taliban and aided Al-Qaeda.
Wicca
The Western religion of witchcraft.
It does not endorse evil or worship Satan. It promotes goodness and healing by drawing on spiritual powers in the Universe.
It is polytheistic, whose supreme goddess is represented by the moon.
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Winfried Corduan
Chapter 11 (continued)
Jehovah's Witnesses
Founded by Charles Taze Russell in 19th century America.
Born as a prophecy movement within Christianity.
Believe one's soul lies in their blood.
Jehovah's Witnesses tries to be considered a legitimate form of Christianity, but their beliefs are truly incompatible.
Juce
Juce is the official religion of North Korea and is a spiritualized form of Marxism.
Mormonism
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints began in 1830 in America, under Joseph Smith.
Smith claimed to receive new revelations in tablets from the angel Moroni. Moroni told Smith that none of the churches of his day represented Christ.
The Book of Mormon tells the story of how Jesus came to America after the resurrection.
Mormons hold that human beings eventually become gods and rule over their own planets.
Nation of Islam
The American Black Muslim movement.
Founded in 1930 by W.D. Ford and Elijah Muhammad (Poole) who claimed to be the incarnations of Allah and Muhammad.
The Nation of Islam holds that blacks are the only true humans and all other races are evil imitations.
Malcolm X realigned the Nation of Islam with more traditional Islamic teachings. But, Louis Farrakhan and 20,000 followers still adhere to the Nation's more radical teachings.
Rastafarianism
Began in the 1930's with the coronation of the Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie.
Some preachers in Jamaica, under the influence of Marcus Garvey's philosophy of black self-determination saw the coronation as the coming of liberation for African people.
They saw Selassie as an incarnation of god.
There are about 600,000 Rastafarians.
A part of Rastafarian worship includes sacramental smoking of marijuana (ganja).
Scientology
Resembles eastern thought like Tibetan Buddhism in certain ways.
Founded by L. Ron Hubbard, an American science fiction writer.
It's aim is to bring about, "increased awareness and spiritual freedom for the individual and rehabilitation of his basic decency, power and ability" (Corduan, 111).
Scientology is known for the book of Dianetics. Hubbard explains his conception of the relationship between the body and soul here.
Soka Gakkai
A Japanese form of Buddhism beginning with the Japanese monk Nichiren (1222-1282). Nichiren claimed the primacy of the Lotus Sutra.
There are about 10 million followers of Nichiren in Japan and 1.5 million followers elsewhere.
Tenrikyo
An offshoot of Shinto.
Tenrikyo means "sect of Tenri".
Founded by a female faith healer in the 19th century. Nakayama Miki claimed to be possessed by the god Oyagami.
She taught suffering was due to spiritual dust accumulating on human souls. This dust is wiped away by devotion to Oyagami.
Followers still believe that Miki is alive today.
Unification Church
Founded by Sun Myung Moon in Korea in the 1950's.
Combined Eastern ideas with Christian teachings.
Believes that spiritual redemption was done by Christ, but full physical redemption would be carried out by the second Messiah, Sun Myung Moon.
It has about 3 million members.
Wahhabite Islam
Began as an 8th century reform movement under Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab in Saudi Arabia.
Al-Wahhab believed Islam had been corrupted by superstitions.
When Saudi Arabia became a nation in 1932, King Abdul Aziz al Saud implemented the harsh Wahhabite principles.
Wahhabite schools eventually produced the Taliban and aided Al-Qaeda.
Wicca
The Western religion of witchcraft.
It does not endorse evil or worship Satan. It promotes goodness and healing by drawing on spiritual powers in the Universe.
It is polytheistic, whose supreme goddess is represented by the moon.
Class notes on Scriptures of Various Religions
(Originally written on February 22, 2007 in Book 14)
Class Notes - Christianity & Religious Pluralism
The "Protestant Fallacy"
The Bible & Other Scriptures
General Revelation --> Natural Theology
(accesible to all human beings)
Romans 1:18-20 - "The wrath of God is being revealed from heaven against all the godlessness and wickedness of people, who suppress the truth by their wickedness, since what may be known about God is plain to them, because God has made it plain to them. For since the creation of the world God's invisible qualities - his eternal power and divine nature - have been clearly seen, being understood from what has been made, so that people are without excuse."
Special Revelation
- Writings
- Jesus Christ
Protestant Fallacy -- to assume that the scriptures of other religions function in the same way as the Bible in Christianity.
The "protestant view" of Scriptures:
- inspired
- authoritative
- sola scriptura
- sufficient
- only guid to faith and practice
- no deterero - canon
- theoretically, all of what we believe and do so is based on the bible
- all other users (recitation, symbolisms) are secondary
Religion - "Canonical Scriptures" - Duetero-Canonical
Judaism - Tanakh (Law, Prophets, Writings) - Mishnah, Talmud
Islam - Koran - Sunna/Hadith
Zoroastrianism - Avesta - None
Hinduism - Vedas, Brahmanas, Sutras, Upanishads - Ramayana, Mahabharata
Judaism
-Tanak: Torah, Prophets, Writings
-Mishnah & Talmud - interpretations of the Tanak
The Talmud supersedes the Torah in practice
2 basic thoughts in Jewish belief in pre-Christ/time of Christ
1) Shamai - conservative
2) Hillel - liberal
Jesus' run-ins were more often with the Shamai followers.
Rabbi Gamaliel was another important thinker. The Apostle Paul was a follower of Gamaliel.
The Talmud is the combination of two works: the Mishna & the Gemara
Islam
The Qur'an
-Sunna, Hadith
The primary purpose of the Qur'an is to present the presence of Allah and to substantiate Muhammad's claims. To recite it is more important than to understand it.
Zoroastrianism
Avesta - consists of many parts, spanning centuries
Hinduism
Hindu Scriptures A
-Shruti "heard"
- The four Vedas
- Brahmanas
- Sutras
- Law of Manu
- Upanishads
Smriti
- Mahabharata
- Bhagavad Gita
- Ramayana
-Puranas
Class Notes - Christianity & Religious Pluralism
The "Protestant Fallacy"
The Bible & Other Scriptures
General Revelation --> Natural Theology
(accesible to all human beings)
Romans 1:18-20 - "The wrath of God is being revealed from heaven against all the godlessness and wickedness of people, who suppress the truth by their wickedness, since what may be known about God is plain to them, because God has made it plain to them. For since the creation of the world God's invisible qualities - his eternal power and divine nature - have been clearly seen, being understood from what has been made, so that people are without excuse."
Special Revelation
- Writings
- Jesus Christ
Protestant Fallacy -- to assume that the scriptures of other religions function in the same way as the Bible in Christianity.
The "protestant view" of Scriptures:
- inspired
- authoritative
- sola scriptura
- sufficient
- only guid to faith and practice
- no deterero - canon
- theoretically, all of what we believe and do so is based on the bible
- all other users (recitation, symbolisms) are secondary
Religion - "Canonical Scriptures" - Duetero-Canonical
Judaism - Tanakh (Law, Prophets, Writings) - Mishnah, Talmud
Islam - Koran - Sunna/Hadith
Zoroastrianism - Avesta - None
Hinduism - Vedas, Brahmanas, Sutras, Upanishads - Ramayana, Mahabharata
Judaism
-Tanak: Torah, Prophets, Writings
-Mishnah & Talmud - interpretations of the Tanak
The Talmud supersedes the Torah in practice
2 basic thoughts in Jewish belief in pre-Christ/time of Christ
1) Shamai - conservative
2) Hillel - liberal
Jesus' run-ins were more often with the Shamai followers.
Rabbi Gamaliel was another important thinker. The Apostle Paul was a follower of Gamaliel.
The Talmud is the combination of two works: the Mishna & the Gemara
Islam
The Qur'an
-Sunna, Hadith
The primary purpose of the Qur'an is to present the presence of Allah and to substantiate Muhammad's claims. To recite it is more important than to understand it.
Zoroastrianism
Avesta - consists of many parts, spanning centuries
Hinduism
Hindu Scriptures A
-Shruti "heard"
- The four Vedas
- Brahmanas
- Sutras
- Law of Manu
- Upanishads
Smriti
- Mahabharata
- Bhagavad Gita
- Ramayana
-Puranas
Ontological Argument: Anselm & Modal Logic
(Originally written February 22, 2007 in Book 13)
Arguments on behalf of the Ontological argument
1) It is conceivable that a being could exist in all possible worlds; If God didn't, he wouldn't be God.
2) Existence is predicated in the definition of God
3) There must be a cause for everything's existence or non-existence, so there is no reason why a necessary being couldn't exist.
4) Simpler hypothesis for God to exist in either all possible worlds or none
5) If God exists in all possible worlds, there is an answer to the question of why something exists rather than nothing. This is best answered by a necessary being.
6) If God can exist, he has to exist, or he wouldn't be God.
7) If we have any idea of perfection, there must be actual perfection, which is God.
The Ontological Argument
Anselm of Canterbury (1033 - 1109)
1) God is, by definition, that which nothing greater can be conceived.
Gaunilo
Objection 1: It does not follow that what exists in the mind exists in reality.
Objection 2: The mental formulation of the most perfect being is impossible.
Objection 3: If the ontological argument is valid then the existence of a perfect island can be inferred.
Latin word for being? Does it imply essence or existence? Does have multiple uses for the word as the word "being" does in English?
"Absolutely perfect" - refers to the essence of something.
Anselm: by definition all great-making qualities is in the absolutely perfect. All intrinsically great-making properties, not extrinsically.
The ontological argument is supposed to be completely a priori. But, you cannot have the ontological argument without presupposing the cosmological argument.
Modal Logic
If something is necessary it must be true in all logically possible worlds.
If something is possible, then it is true in at least one possible world.
If something is necessarily true it must be true in the actual world.
If something is possibly true then it may or may not be true in the actual world.
If it is possible that God exists, He necessarily does.
Arguments on behalf of the Ontological argument
1) It is conceivable that a being could exist in all possible worlds; If God didn't, he wouldn't be God.
2) Existence is predicated in the definition of God
3) There must be a cause for everything's existence or non-existence, so there is no reason why a necessary being couldn't exist.
4) Simpler hypothesis for God to exist in either all possible worlds or none
5) If God exists in all possible worlds, there is an answer to the question of why something exists rather than nothing. This is best answered by a necessary being.
6) If God can exist, he has to exist, or he wouldn't be God.
7) If we have any idea of perfection, there must be actual perfection, which is God.
The Ontological Argument
Anselm of Canterbury (1033 - 1109)
1) God is, by definition, that which nothing greater can be conceived.
Gaunilo
Objection 1: It does not follow that what exists in the mind exists in reality.
Objection 2: The mental formulation of the most perfect being is impossible.
Objection 3: If the ontological argument is valid then the existence of a perfect island can be inferred.
Latin word for being? Does it imply essence or existence? Does have multiple uses for the word as the word "being" does in English?
"Absolutely perfect" - refers to the essence of something.
Anselm: by definition all great-making qualities is in the absolutely perfect. All intrinsically great-making properties, not extrinsically.
The ontological argument is supposed to be completely a priori. But, you cannot have the ontological argument without presupposing the cosmological argument.
Modal Logic
If something is necessary it must be true in all logically possible worlds.
If something is possible, then it is true in at least one possible world.
If something is necessarily true it must be true in the actual world.
If something is possibly true then it may or may not be true in the actual world.
If it is possible that God exists, He necessarily does.
Wednesday, February 21, 2007
Chapter 11 - Pocket Guide to World Religions (A)
(Originally written February 21, 2007 in Book 14)
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 11: New Religions
Introduction
All religions are constantly changing, but religions generally abhor change.
Definition
In order for something to be a "new religion" it must not be old and have the character of religion.
A "New Religion" is a religion that is still working to be recognized as a separate religion.
Aleph (formerly Aum Shinrikyo)
Chizuo Matsumoto (Shoko Asahara) formed a small Japanese group in 1995.
There are somewhere between 1500 - 25000 practitioners of Aleph.
It focuses on finding mystical knowledge through Hindu meditation and Yoga.
Shiva is important to Aleph.
Aleph believes that the world is going to end soon and that the practitioners were to hasten this end's by causing catastrophes.
The 1995 nerve gas attack in a Tokyo subway was carried out by followers of Aleph.
Ahmadiyya Islam
This is an Islamic movement that originated in Pakistan.
It is extremely pacifistic and opposed to all violence, including self-defense.
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1839-1908) was its founder and claimed to be the Islamic Mahdi, the second coming of Christ and the Hindu coming of Krishna.
There are two sects of Ahmadiyya Islam:
1) The Qadiyan group
- Sees Mirza Ghulam Ahmad as a prophet equal to Muhammad
2) The Lahore group
- sees Mirza Ghulam Ahmad as a reformer of Islam.
The Qadiyan group is exiled from Islam, but the Lahore group is recognized as a valid sect of Islam.
Ahmadiyya Islam actively recruits converts and claims 200 million followers.
Cao Dai
Originated in Vietnam in the 1920's.
Has up to 4 million followers.
It attempted to combine all the best aspects of religion into one practice using Christian, Buddhist and Hindu ideas.
It has become more of a mystical and occult practice that are tangential to its parent religions.
Christian Science
Founded by Mary Baker Eddy in 1875.
She combined traditional Christianity with Eastern philosophy and psychosomatic healing.
She taught that human illness was caused by the illusion that the material world was real.
Christian Science forbids the use of modern medicine.
Falun Gong (or Falun Dafa)
Li Hongzhi, its founder uses unsophisticated Daoist and Buddhist principles to promote health and material well-being.
Falun Gong claims 100 million followers and is heavily persecuted in the People's Republic of China.
Iskcon (Hare Krishna)
A long-standing movement in Hinduism, Hare Krishna is perceived as a cult.
Caitanya taught devotion to Krishna in the 16th century.
It claims that Krishna is the supreme personal godhead.
It came to the U.S. in 1969 under A.C. Bhaktivedanta Prabhupada.
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 11: New Religions
Introduction
All religions are constantly changing, but religions generally abhor change.
Definition
In order for something to be a "new religion" it must not be old and have the character of religion.
A "New Religion" is a religion that is still working to be recognized as a separate religion.
Aleph (formerly Aum Shinrikyo)
Chizuo Matsumoto (Shoko Asahara) formed a small Japanese group in 1995.
There are somewhere between 1500 - 25000 practitioners of Aleph.
It focuses on finding mystical knowledge through Hindu meditation and Yoga.
Shiva is important to Aleph.
Aleph believes that the world is going to end soon and that the practitioners were to hasten this end's by causing catastrophes.
The 1995 nerve gas attack in a Tokyo subway was carried out by followers of Aleph.
Ahmadiyya Islam
This is an Islamic movement that originated in Pakistan.
It is extremely pacifistic and opposed to all violence, including self-defense.
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1839-1908) was its founder and claimed to be the Islamic Mahdi, the second coming of Christ and the Hindu coming of Krishna.
There are two sects of Ahmadiyya Islam:
1) The Qadiyan group
- Sees Mirza Ghulam Ahmad as a prophet equal to Muhammad
2) The Lahore group
- sees Mirza Ghulam Ahmad as a reformer of Islam.
The Qadiyan group is exiled from Islam, but the Lahore group is recognized as a valid sect of Islam.
Ahmadiyya Islam actively recruits converts and claims 200 million followers.
Cao Dai
Originated in Vietnam in the 1920's.
Has up to 4 million followers.
It attempted to combine all the best aspects of religion into one practice using Christian, Buddhist and Hindu ideas.
It has become more of a mystical and occult practice that are tangential to its parent religions.
Christian Science
Founded by Mary Baker Eddy in 1875.
She combined traditional Christianity with Eastern philosophy and psychosomatic healing.
She taught that human illness was caused by the illusion that the material world was real.
Christian Science forbids the use of modern medicine.
Falun Gong (or Falun Dafa)
Li Hongzhi, its founder uses unsophisticated Daoist and Buddhist principles to promote health and material well-being.
Falun Gong claims 100 million followers and is heavily persecuted in the People's Republic of China.
Iskcon (Hare Krishna)
A long-standing movement in Hinduism, Hare Krishna is perceived as a cult.
Caitanya taught devotion to Krishna in the 16th century.
It claims that Krishna is the supreme personal godhead.
It came to the U.S. in 1969 under A.C. Bhaktivedanta Prabhupada.
Chapter 10 - Pocket Guide to World Religions (B)
(Originally written February 21, 2007 in Book 14)
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 10 - Judaism (continued)
Religious Buildings
Jewish houses of worship are called synagogues.
A synagogue is not a temple. The temple in the Bible is where the sacrifices took place. The synagogue is where services of prayer and teaching are done.
In every synagogue there is a:
1) bema: a platform where the rabbi and cantor lead the service
2) menorah: a seven branched candlestick
3) ark: a cabinet with Torah scrolls in it.
Home practices
The home is central to Judaism. Family time is crucial to worship practices.
Bar Mitzvah is the coming of age ceremony for every Jewish boy. Bat Mitzvah is the coming of age ceremony for Jewish girls in Reform Judaism sects.
Clothing
Orthodox Jewish men wear a skull-cap called the yarmulke.
They also wear an undershirt which has fringes that stick out over the top of their paints.
Orthodox men do not cut the sides of their hair.
Diet
The Jewish diet is called the Kosher diet.
Kosher diets permit all vegetables, animals that have hoofs, seafood with scales and fins and birds like chicken and duck.
When animals are slaughtered all of the blood must be drained immediately.
Calendar
Judaism maintains a lunar calendar which is adjusted to keep with the solar year.
The Jewish year is counted from what is considered the creation time. A.D. 2000 was the Jewish year 5,761.
The Jewish year begins with Rosh Hashanah in September or October.
Yom Kippur happens ten days later and is the day of atonement.
The Sukkoth comes right after Yom Kippur and is a weeklong festival commemorating Israel's wandering in the wilderness.
Hanukkah is an eight day celebration of God's deliverance from oppression in the second century A.D. It occurs in December.
Purim is celebrated in March in remembrance of Queen Esther.
Passover is the celebration of God's deliverance of the Israelites in Egypt.
"Judaism is the religion of a people who have made great contributions to the world but who have suffered much persecution at the hands of those for whom they made the contributions" (Corduan, 104).
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 10 - Judaism (continued)
Religious Buildings
Jewish houses of worship are called synagogues.
A synagogue is not a temple. The temple in the Bible is where the sacrifices took place. The synagogue is where services of prayer and teaching are done.
In every synagogue there is a:
1) bema: a platform where the rabbi and cantor lead the service
2) menorah: a seven branched candlestick
3) ark: a cabinet with Torah scrolls in it.
Home practices
The home is central to Judaism. Family time is crucial to worship practices.
Bar Mitzvah is the coming of age ceremony for every Jewish boy. Bat Mitzvah is the coming of age ceremony for Jewish girls in Reform Judaism sects.
Clothing
Orthodox Jewish men wear a skull-cap called the yarmulke.
They also wear an undershirt which has fringes that stick out over the top of their paints.
Orthodox men do not cut the sides of their hair.
Diet
The Jewish diet is called the Kosher diet.
Kosher diets permit all vegetables, animals that have hoofs, seafood with scales and fins and birds like chicken and duck.
When animals are slaughtered all of the blood must be drained immediately.
Calendar
Judaism maintains a lunar calendar which is adjusted to keep with the solar year.
The Jewish year is counted from what is considered the creation time. A.D. 2000 was the Jewish year 5,761.
The Jewish year begins with Rosh Hashanah in September or October.
Yom Kippur happens ten days later and is the day of atonement.
The Sukkoth comes right after Yom Kippur and is a weeklong festival commemorating Israel's wandering in the wilderness.
Hanukkah is an eight day celebration of God's deliverance from oppression in the second century A.D. It occurs in December.
Purim is celebrated in March in remembrance of Queen Esther.
Passover is the celebration of God's deliverance of the Israelites in Egypt.
"Judaism is the religion of a people who have made great contributions to the world but who have suffered much persecution at the hands of those for whom they made the contributions" (Corduan, 104).
Tuesday, February 20, 2007
Chapter 10 - Pocket Guide to World Religions (A)
(Originally written February 20, 2007 in Book 14)
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Name
Derived from the Tribe of Judah, one of the twelve tribes of ancient Israel.
Jewish means more than a religious outlook, it has an ethnic and cultural meaning. Some Jews are proud of their culture and ethnicity and do not practice the Jewish faith.
Numbers and Distribution
There are 14 million Jews worldwide, but not all practice the Jewish faith.
There are 4.5 million Jews in the U.S.
Symbols
The star of David is the widely recognized symbol in Judaism.
History
Judaism has a number of points that can be considered its origin.
1) 2200 BC. - God chose Abraham
2) 15th century BC - God gave Moses the 10 Commandments
3) 950 BC - Solomon built the Temple
4) 540 BC - The second Temple was built
5) A.D. 70 - the Roman destruction of the Temple
Judaism was a religion of a dispersed people.
After the dispersal from Palestine, a strong Jewish culture developed in Iran and then in Spain.
The Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492 and moved to Eastern Europe.
Persecution has played a big part in the history of the Jews.
In the 19th century the Zionist movement rose under the Austrian Theodor Herzl. Herzl taught that Jews would never be secure without a country of their own.
Many Jews emigrated back to Palestine and after the Holocaust, the U.N. permitted the founding of a Jewish State.
Scriptures
The most important writings for Jews are the Torah, the first five books of the Bible.
The Torah is one of the sacred scriptures called the Tanakh (T.N.K.).
T.N.K. =
T - Torah (The Law)
N - Neviim (The prophets)
K- Ketuvim (the writings)
Rabbis began writing down oral interpretations of the Scriptures in the first century A.D.
The Mishnah was completed in 300 A.D. The Talmud, the standard set of interpretations was completed in 500 A.D.
The mystical form of Judaism is known as Kabbalah. Kabbalah has a number of writings. The most important book in Kabbalah is the Zohar, written by Moses de Leon in the 13th century.
Major Beliefs
Judaism emphasizes practice over beliefs.
Some beliefs:
1) One God
2) God has a chosen people to be His representatives on Earth.
3) God's choosing of the Jews is an expression of His love and a call to obedience.
4) Jews who live up to the standards of God will go to Heaven. Gentiles who live up to God's lesser standards for them will also go to Heaven. The main concern of Judaism is not access to Heaven, but to live in conformity to God's standards.
5) God will send the Messiah to preside over a time of peace and prosperity at the end of the age.
Subgroups
Orthodox Judaism - Strict adherence to the Law
Hasidic Judaism - Orthodox Jews who refer to the mystical reformer Baal Shem Tov. This 18th century Polish Jew taught that Jews could find God in personal experience rather than through legalism.
Reform Judaism
- arose in 18th century Germany
- flourished in 19th century Germany and the U.S.
- focused on the idea that Jews should be at home in their won countries and assimilate to that nation's culture
- holds the Talmud as non-bounding
Conservative Judaism
- rose int he 1920's in the U.S.
- a middle grown between Orthodox and reform Judaism
- permits adaptations of the Law, but recognizes it as still binding
- Conservative Judaism is the most popular sect in today's United States
Worship practices
Orthodox Judaism focuses on God and his handing down of the Law.
Prayer is crucial. They pray three times a day: morning, noon, evening.
Ortodox prayer requires one to wear phylacteries and a prayer shawl. "Phylacteries are two little boxes, about one inch cubed, that are strapped to the forehead and the left hand, containing little parchments of scripture verses" (Corduan, 101).
Congregational worship takes place on the Sabbath which begins on Friday evening and ends on Saturday evening.
There are prayers, reading for the Torah and music from the cantor in a Jewish service.
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Name
Derived from the Tribe of Judah, one of the twelve tribes of ancient Israel.
Jewish means more than a religious outlook, it has an ethnic and cultural meaning. Some Jews are proud of their culture and ethnicity and do not practice the Jewish faith.
Numbers and Distribution
There are 14 million Jews worldwide, but not all practice the Jewish faith.
There are 4.5 million Jews in the U.S.
Symbols
The star of David is the widely recognized symbol in Judaism.
History
Judaism has a number of points that can be considered its origin.
1) 2200 BC. - God chose Abraham
2) 15th century BC - God gave Moses the 10 Commandments
3) 950 BC - Solomon built the Temple
4) 540 BC - The second Temple was built
5) A.D. 70 - the Roman destruction of the Temple
Judaism was a religion of a dispersed people.
After the dispersal from Palestine, a strong Jewish culture developed in Iran and then in Spain.
The Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492 and moved to Eastern Europe.
Persecution has played a big part in the history of the Jews.
In the 19th century the Zionist movement rose under the Austrian Theodor Herzl. Herzl taught that Jews would never be secure without a country of their own.
Many Jews emigrated back to Palestine and after the Holocaust, the U.N. permitted the founding of a Jewish State.
Scriptures
The most important writings for Jews are the Torah, the first five books of the Bible.
The Torah is one of the sacred scriptures called the Tanakh (T.N.K.).
T.N.K. =
T - Torah (The Law)
N - Neviim (The prophets)
K- Ketuvim (the writings)
Rabbis began writing down oral interpretations of the Scriptures in the first century A.D.
The Mishnah was completed in 300 A.D. The Talmud, the standard set of interpretations was completed in 500 A.D.
The mystical form of Judaism is known as Kabbalah. Kabbalah has a number of writings. The most important book in Kabbalah is the Zohar, written by Moses de Leon in the 13th century.
Major Beliefs
Judaism emphasizes practice over beliefs.
Some beliefs:
1) One God
2) God has a chosen people to be His representatives on Earth.
3) God's choosing of the Jews is an expression of His love and a call to obedience.
4) Jews who live up to the standards of God will go to Heaven. Gentiles who live up to God's lesser standards for them will also go to Heaven. The main concern of Judaism is not access to Heaven, but to live in conformity to God's standards.
5) God will send the Messiah to preside over a time of peace and prosperity at the end of the age.
Subgroups
Orthodox Judaism - Strict adherence to the Law
Hasidic Judaism - Orthodox Jews who refer to the mystical reformer Baal Shem Tov. This 18th century Polish Jew taught that Jews could find God in personal experience rather than through legalism.
Reform Judaism
- arose in 18th century Germany
- flourished in 19th century Germany and the U.S.
- focused on the idea that Jews should be at home in their won countries and assimilate to that nation's culture
- holds the Talmud as non-bounding
Conservative Judaism
- rose int he 1920's in the U.S.
- a middle grown between Orthodox and reform Judaism
- permits adaptations of the Law, but recognizes it as still binding
- Conservative Judaism is the most popular sect in today's United States
Worship practices
Orthodox Judaism focuses on God and his handing down of the Law.
Prayer is crucial. They pray three times a day: morning, noon, evening.
Ortodox prayer requires one to wear phylacteries and a prayer shawl. "Phylacteries are two little boxes, about one inch cubed, that are strapped to the forehead and the left hand, containing little parchments of scripture verses" (Corduan, 101).
Congregational worship takes place on the Sabbath which begins on Friday evening and ends on Saturday evening.
There are prayers, reading for the Torah and music from the cantor in a Jewish service.
Can we demonstrate the existence of God?
(Originally written February 20, 2007 in Book 13)
Can we demonstrate the existence of God?
Objections
1) Can never demonstrate an infinite cause from a finite effect.
2) God's existence is known through faith. Reason cannot prove matters of faith.
3) Even a demonstration that's logically valid may not correspond to reality.
4) We are limited by being enclosed in a finite universe, which we cannot escape. God exists outside of the universe, thus we cannot demonstrate his existence or non-existence.
5) Every argument for the existence of God must first assume His existence, thus all arguments are circular.
6) No argument for the existence of God is ever going to convince who doesn't already believe.
7) God's essence is the middle term, but we cannot comprehend God's essence.
Explanation of 7)
All birds are egg layers (major premise)
All penguins are birds (minor premise)
Therefore, all penguins are egg layers (conclusion)
"Birds" - the middle term
"egglayers" - major term, always the predicate of the conclusion
penguins - minor term, always the subject of the conclusion
The essence of God must function as the middle term, but we do not have any comprehension of the essence of God, so it cannot function that way.
8) There is no such thing as metaphysical knowledge. All knowledge is limited to experience.
9) God cannot be proven by scientific experiments.
10) The term 'God' is meaningless.
Can we demonstrate the existence of God?
Based on Summa Theologic 1, q. 2a.2
Objections revisited
1. A priori objections
2. A posteriori objections
A priori objection #1
Religious language is meaningless
- Ayer, Wittgenstein, logical positivists
- In order to be a meaningful a statement must be, in principle, verifiable
A priori objection #2
- We cannot validate religious experience empirically
- Flew
A priori objection #3
- What is rational, needn't be true
- post modernism
All dragons have wings
All monsters are dragons
Therefore, all monsters have wings
A posteriori objection #1
-Knowledge of God can only be based on faith
- Kierkegaard
A posteriori objection #2
- We cannot apprehend God's essence
A posteriori objection #3
- The finite can never extend to the infinite
- Alfred North Whitehead
A posteriori objection #4
- Presuppositionalism: Since God is first in Being, we must begin with God
- Kierkegaard, Van Til
Transcendental argumentation
Ways to draw valid logical inferences
1) Deduction - formal inferences from premises
2) Induction - probable conclusions from observations
We know there is a world
- What are the conditions that are necessary for there to be a world?
- We cannot look outside o the world to find God
- If there is a God, there could be evidence for a God in the world.
Any attempt to simply close the option of there being theistic proofs are purely arbitrary.
Can the finite attain infinity?
Georg Cantor's set theory
{1, 2, 3, 4 ... infinity}
{1, 2, 3, 4
but the set of real numbers, which is infinite is longer than the set of integers, which is also infinite.
Metaphysical infinity is more than mathematical infinite.
Important considerations
- Distinction between that something exists and comprehending its essence.
Distinction between ontology and epistemology.
-Ontology (being)
-Epistemology (knowing)
Ontologically, God exists or he doesn't.
Theistic proofs deal with the epistemological question: "Can one know that God exists".
Ontology - God exists
Epistemology - Ascertaining the ontology
Arguing in a circle.
God exists
Therefore, he has shown his effects
Therefore, he has ...
Therefore, he has ...
Therefore, God exists.
Believing the ontological statement that "God exists" and then providing an epistemological proof is not circular, so long as one does not assume it in the actual argument.
Assignment: argue for the ontological argument.
Can we demonstrate the existence of God?
Objections
1) Can never demonstrate an infinite cause from a finite effect.
2) God's existence is known through faith. Reason cannot prove matters of faith.
3) Even a demonstration that's logically valid may not correspond to reality.
4) We are limited by being enclosed in a finite universe, which we cannot escape. God exists outside of the universe, thus we cannot demonstrate his existence or non-existence.
5) Every argument for the existence of God must first assume His existence, thus all arguments are circular.
6) No argument for the existence of God is ever going to convince who doesn't already believe.
7) God's essence is the middle term, but we cannot comprehend God's essence.
Explanation of 7)
All birds are egg layers (major premise)
All penguins are birds (minor premise)
Therefore, all penguins are egg layers (conclusion)
"Birds" - the middle term
"egglayers" - major term, always the predicate of the conclusion
penguins - minor term, always the subject of the conclusion
The essence of God must function as the middle term, but we do not have any comprehension of the essence of God, so it cannot function that way.
8) There is no such thing as metaphysical knowledge. All knowledge is limited to experience.
9) God cannot be proven by scientific experiments.
10) The term 'God' is meaningless.
Can we demonstrate the existence of God?
Based on Summa Theologic 1, q. 2a.2
Objections revisited
1. A priori objections
2. A posteriori objections
A priori objection #1
Religious language is meaningless
- Ayer, Wittgenstein, logical positivists
- In order to be a meaningful a statement must be, in principle, verifiable
A priori objection #2
- We cannot validate religious experience empirically
- Flew
A priori objection #3
- What is rational, needn't be true
- post modernism
All dragons have wings
All monsters are dragons
Therefore, all monsters have wings
A posteriori objection #1
-Knowledge of God can only be based on faith
- Kierkegaard
A posteriori objection #2
- We cannot apprehend God's essence
A posteriori objection #3
- The finite can never extend to the infinite
- Alfred North Whitehead
A posteriori objection #4
- Presuppositionalism: Since God is first in Being, we must begin with God
- Kierkegaard, Van Til
Transcendental argumentation
Ways to draw valid logical inferences
1) Deduction - formal inferences from premises
2) Induction - probable conclusions from observations
We know there is a world
- What are the conditions that are necessary for there to be a world?
- We cannot look outside o the world to find God
- If there is a God, there could be evidence for a God in the world.
Any attempt to simply close the option of there being theistic proofs are purely arbitrary.
Can the finite attain infinity?
Georg Cantor's set theory
{1, 2, 3, 4 ... infinity}
{1, 2, 3, 4
but the set of real numbers, which is infinite is longer than the set of integers, which is also infinite.
Metaphysical infinity is more than mathematical infinite.
Important considerations
- Distinction between that something exists and comprehending its essence.
Distinction between ontology and epistemology.
-Ontology (being)
-Epistemology (knowing)
Ontologically, God exists or he doesn't.
Theistic proofs deal with the epistemological question: "Can one know that God exists".
Ontology - God exists
Epistemology - Ascertaining the ontology
Arguing in a circle.
God exists
Therefore, he has shown his effects
Therefore, he has ...
Therefore, he has ...
Therefore, God exists.
Believing the ontological statement that "God exists" and then providing an epistemological proof is not circular, so long as one does not assume it in the actual argument.
Assignment: argue for the ontological argument.
Sunday, February 18, 2007
Chapter 9 - Pocket Guide to World Religions
(Originally written February 18, 2007 in Book 9)
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter Nine: Jainism
Name
Jainism is derived from the Sanskrit word jina. Tina means "conquerer". A Jain is a "follower of the conquerer". The conquerer refers to the founder of the religion, Mahavira.
To the outsider, Jainism appears similar to Hinduism.
Numbers and Distribution
There are 4 million Jains in the world today.
The vast majority live in India, but Kenya has a number of Jains because of Indian immigration.
There is an active Jain temple in Chicago.
Symbols
Jainism has many symbols but for a millennia it had no universal symbol.
In 1975, a global convention of Jains met to observe the 2500th anniversary of Mahavira's death and devised a single symbol. It combined five elements:
1. The outside is a person's torso, the shape Jains imagine the universe exists in.
2) The arc represents the head of the human shape, the dot represents those who have attained liberation.
3) The three dots stand for the three Jain principles: faith, right knowledge and right conduct
4) The swastika has many meanings: entanglement in the cycle of reincarnations, the four kinds of beings in need of salvation: gods, humans, animals and demons
5) the hand indicates a blessing and a warning. Inside the hand is a wheel with 24 spokes. Each spoke represents an ancient teacher (the Tirthankaras). Inside the wheel is the inscription "ahimsa" which means non-violence. Non-violence is the most basic principle of Jainism
History
Jainism was founded by Mahavira, who lived in the 6th century BC. He was the son of making who renounced his wealth and leisure to find enlightenment. He then lived a life of extreme self-mortification, punishing his body to liberate his soul. At the brink of death he experienced a flash of enlightenment.
Unlike the Buddha, Mahavira di not cease to live an ascetic life. He recruited others to emulate his lifestyle.
Jainism split from Hinduism because it didn't acknowledge the caste system or divinity of the Hindu scriptures.
Jainism's central belief not to harm any living beings is so strict it denies farming as a valid occupation.
Jains became good commerce and finance occupations.
Scriptures
There are many Jain writings. The most popular collection of Scriptures is the Agam Sutras, but they are not universally accepted.
Major Beliefs
Jainism's main focus is on liberation from the cycle of reincarnation.
Jainism teaches the law of karma.
Jainism teaches that each being has its own soul and its own divinity. The soul is called a jiva and it is trapped in a cycle of births and rebirths. The goal of each jiva is to rise to the top of the universe to enjoy peace. Ajiva (or dead matter) clings to the soul and keeps it trapped in its current bondage. Ajiva is depicted as granules that weigh the soul down and the more bad karma one accrues, the more ajiva sets piled on one's jiva.
The point of Jainism is to purify one's soul of all ajiva in order to enter the permanent state of bliss. Removing bad karma from one's soul is something all persons need to do for themselves.
The gods are ambivalent role in Jainism.
Jainism vigorously denies the existence of a creator or sustainer of the universe.
The Hindu gods are recognized in Jainism, but seen as being in need of salvation. The gods must be reborn in human form to receive salvation through personal enlightenment.
There are five vows one must take to achieve enlightenment.
1) Ahisma - never harming many living thing. Eating can be given up to remove all karma.
2) Always tell the truth. One must qualify all of one's speech so that no one can mishear them.
3) Never steal property
4) Avoid all sexual contact
5) Do not get attached to anything material. One must limit one's sensory input as much as possible.
Mahavira showed the way to enlightenment. He was a jina (a conqueror) and a Tirthankara (a ford finder). Mahavira was the last of the 24 Tirthankara.
Even though Tirthankaras are not gods in Jainism, they are worshipped as such in Jain temples.
Subgroups
There are two major subgroups and a number of small ones. The two major subgroups are:
1) Svetambara - "clad in white". The monks wear white.
2) Digambara - "clad in atmosphere". The monks wear only air.
Digambara Jainists believe that one cannot attain enlightenment while wearing clothes and that women cannot go naked. Thus, they believe that women cannot be enlightened.
The Svetambara believe that women can attain enlightenment and that one of the Tirthankaras was a woman named Subidhi.
Worship practices
One attaining enlightenment through strictly observing precepts.
In the Jain temples people focus on the teachings of the Tirthankaras and venerate their statues.
They meditate in the temples.
Religious Buildings
Jain temples are usually highly ornate and white on the outside.
Inside a temple there are decorations to aid meditation.
There are statues of the Tirthankaras in an isolated room. Worshippers must wear cloths on their face to not contaminate the purity of the air with their breath.
Home Practices
Jains believe that only monks can remove all karma to attain enlightenment.
The laity of Jainism work to remove as much karma as possible to have a favorable reincarnation.
Clothing
Laypersons must dress modestly. Monks split over wearing white robes and going nude.
Diet
Laypersons eat a strict vegetarian diet. This is still a compromise because plants are living creatures and they believe that they are incurring karma every time they eat.
Monks only eat what was going to be thrown away.
Calendar
Jains follow a lunar calendar that keeps step with the solar year.
All groups celebrate the birthday of Mahavira, which roughly falls into April.
The other main holiday is a 10-day fast used as a time of reflection and prayer.
The Svetambras call this Paryusham and hold it in August. The Digambaras observe their fast as the Das Lakshon in September.
Jainism is a culture based on rigorous ethical principles, paying a high respect for truth.
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter Nine: Jainism
Name
Jainism is derived from the Sanskrit word jina. Tina means "conquerer". A Jain is a "follower of the conquerer". The conquerer refers to the founder of the religion, Mahavira.
To the outsider, Jainism appears similar to Hinduism.
Numbers and Distribution
There are 4 million Jains in the world today.
The vast majority live in India, but Kenya has a number of Jains because of Indian immigration.
There is an active Jain temple in Chicago.
Symbols
Jainism has many symbols but for a millennia it had no universal symbol.
In 1975, a global convention of Jains met to observe the 2500th anniversary of Mahavira's death and devised a single symbol. It combined five elements:
1. The outside is a person's torso, the shape Jains imagine the universe exists in.
2) The arc represents the head of the human shape, the dot represents those who have attained liberation.
3) The three dots stand for the three Jain principles: faith, right knowledge and right conduct
4) The swastika has many meanings: entanglement in the cycle of reincarnations, the four kinds of beings in need of salvation: gods, humans, animals and demons
5) the hand indicates a blessing and a warning. Inside the hand is a wheel with 24 spokes. Each spoke represents an ancient teacher (the Tirthankaras). Inside the wheel is the inscription "ahimsa" which means non-violence. Non-violence is the most basic principle of Jainism
History
Jainism was founded by Mahavira, who lived in the 6th century BC. He was the son of making who renounced his wealth and leisure to find enlightenment. He then lived a life of extreme self-mortification, punishing his body to liberate his soul. At the brink of death he experienced a flash of enlightenment.
Unlike the Buddha, Mahavira di not cease to live an ascetic life. He recruited others to emulate his lifestyle.
Jainism split from Hinduism because it didn't acknowledge the caste system or divinity of the Hindu scriptures.
Jainism's central belief not to harm any living beings is so strict it denies farming as a valid occupation.
Jains became good commerce and finance occupations.
Scriptures
There are many Jain writings. The most popular collection of Scriptures is the Agam Sutras, but they are not universally accepted.
Major Beliefs
Jainism's main focus is on liberation from the cycle of reincarnation.
Jainism teaches the law of karma.
Jainism teaches that each being has its own soul and its own divinity. The soul is called a jiva and it is trapped in a cycle of births and rebirths. The goal of each jiva is to rise to the top of the universe to enjoy peace. Ajiva (or dead matter) clings to the soul and keeps it trapped in its current bondage. Ajiva is depicted as granules that weigh the soul down and the more bad karma one accrues, the more ajiva sets piled on one's jiva.
The point of Jainism is to purify one's soul of all ajiva in order to enter the permanent state of bliss. Removing bad karma from one's soul is something all persons need to do for themselves.
The gods are ambivalent role in Jainism.
Jainism vigorously denies the existence of a creator or sustainer of the universe.
The Hindu gods are recognized in Jainism, but seen as being in need of salvation. The gods must be reborn in human form to receive salvation through personal enlightenment.
There are five vows one must take to achieve enlightenment.
1) Ahisma - never harming many living thing. Eating can be given up to remove all karma.
2) Always tell the truth. One must qualify all of one's speech so that no one can mishear them.
3) Never steal property
4) Avoid all sexual contact
5) Do not get attached to anything material. One must limit one's sensory input as much as possible.
Mahavira showed the way to enlightenment. He was a jina (a conqueror) and a Tirthankara (a ford finder). Mahavira was the last of the 24 Tirthankara.
Even though Tirthankaras are not gods in Jainism, they are worshipped as such in Jain temples.
Subgroups
There are two major subgroups and a number of small ones. The two major subgroups are:
1) Svetambara - "clad in white". The monks wear white.
2) Digambara - "clad in atmosphere". The monks wear only air.
Digambara Jainists believe that one cannot attain enlightenment while wearing clothes and that women cannot go naked. Thus, they believe that women cannot be enlightened.
The Svetambara believe that women can attain enlightenment and that one of the Tirthankaras was a woman named Subidhi.
Worship practices
One attaining enlightenment through strictly observing precepts.
In the Jain temples people focus on the teachings of the Tirthankaras and venerate their statues.
They meditate in the temples.
Religious Buildings
Jain temples are usually highly ornate and white on the outside.
Inside a temple there are decorations to aid meditation.
There are statues of the Tirthankaras in an isolated room. Worshippers must wear cloths on their face to not contaminate the purity of the air with their breath.
Home Practices
Jains believe that only monks can remove all karma to attain enlightenment.
The laity of Jainism work to remove as much karma as possible to have a favorable reincarnation.
Clothing
Laypersons must dress modestly. Monks split over wearing white robes and going nude.
Diet
Laypersons eat a strict vegetarian diet. This is still a compromise because plants are living creatures and they believe that they are incurring karma every time they eat.
Monks only eat what was going to be thrown away.
Calendar
Jains follow a lunar calendar that keeps step with the solar year.
All groups celebrate the birthday of Mahavira, which roughly falls into April.
The other main holiday is a 10-day fast used as a time of reflection and prayer.
The Svetambras call this Paryusham and hold it in August. The Digambaras observe their fast as the Das Lakshon in September.
Jainism is a culture based on rigorous ethical principles, paying a high respect for truth.
Chapter 8 - Pocket Guide to World Religions
(Originally written February 18, 2007 in Book 14)
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Chapter 8 - Islam
Name
The name Islam literally means, "submission".
Muslim is translated as "one who submits to God".
Muhammadism and Mahometism and derivatives should not be used to describe Muslims.
Numbers and Distribution
There are 1.3 billion Muslims worldwide. 5-7 million Muslims live in the U.S.
The largest populations of Muslims are actually in Asia, not the Middle East.
- India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan and Bangladesh.
Symbols
The most common is the crescent moon with a star inside it.
The meaning of the crescent is obscure. Most frequently it is deemed to stand for representing the new moon because many Muslim practices are tied to a lunar calendar.
History
According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad, the founder of Islam, was born in Mecca, in A.D. 570.
Muhammad meditated and received messages from God and passed them to the people. These messages were collected in the Qur'an (Koran).
Muhammad preached that there is only one God and all human beings will be held accountable to him at the last judgment.
The idolatrous religions of the Arabian peninsula and their leaders took offense at Muhammad's message and persecuted the new Muslim community. They fled Mecca.
Muhammad and his followers formed an army in nearby Medina. They returned to Mecca and purged the city of idolatry and claimed it for Islam.
After Muhammad died the Muslim community split over who would be his successor. This is where the Shi'ite and Sunni division took place.
During this time of inner strife, Islam spread rapidly. Over 30 years nearly the entire Middle East and Northern Africa was conquered by Islam.
Islam is not simply a religion, ti is aching that encompasses an entire community, including government.
Scriptures
Only one book contains the complete and true revelation of God, the Qur'an.
Islam recognizes the Law of Moses, the Psalms of David and the Gospels of Jesus as holy books, but they have been corrupted and thus, are unreliable.
Also the Hadith is a collection of several words from Muhammad and stories of his life. The Hadith is not the word of Allah, but it is an authoritative interpretation of the Qur'an.
Major Beliefs
There are Five or Six Essential beliefs in Islam
1) God
- Allah is one God
- He can neither be divided nor multiplied
-Islam rejects polytheism and Christianity's idea of the Trinity
2) Angels and Spirits
- There are beings who were created to serve humans and Allah
- The angel Gabriel presented Muhammad with his first revelation
- The jinn are malicious spirits
- Iblis is the spirit who refused to bow to Adam and became the devil
3) Prophets
- God has designated individuals to be prophets in order to declare his standards
- Muhammad is the "seal of the prophets". He brought the same message, but it has been preserved without corruption or alteration
- Noah, Adam, Abraham and Jesus are some notable prophets recognized by Islam
4) Books
- Some prophets (Moses, Jesus, David and Muhammad) embodied their words in books. Jews and Christians have flawed books, but their devotion to Monotheism, gain them a special standing as "people of the book"
5) Judgment
- all will be judged at the last judgment
- at the final judgment a book of their actions will be placed in every persons' hands by an angel. If it is placed in their left hand they are condemned. If it is placed in their right hand they will spend eternity with Allah in Heaven.
- If you submitted to Allah you will spend eternity in Heaven. Some who have never even heard of Islam will be deemed to have submitted while those who claim to be Muslim may be deemed to have not submitted
- "Allah's judgement will be harshest on hypocrites and lapsed Muslims" (Corduan, 84).
Subgroups
There are two major divisions amongst Muslims:
1) Sunnis
2) Shi'ites
The split is primarily historical, but there are few belief/practice differences as well.
Sunni Muslims followed Abu Bakr, one of Muhammad's fathers-in-law, upon Muhammad's death.
According to the Sunni tradition, Muhammad's spiritual gifts died with him and the Qur'an is the final say on all matters.
The Shi'ite Muslims followed Ali, Muhammad's son-in-law. Ali, according to the Shi'ite tradition, possessed a spiritual endowment from the prophet.
Shi'ites believe that their leaders, the imams, have, if not authority on par with the Qur'an, the final say on interpretation.
Sunni Islam does not have a central authority, is fairly uniform and believe Mecca is the only pilgrimage. The Shi'ite tradition has a hierarchy with 1 imam, 12ish ayatollahs and many local mullahs, is split into further divisions and has other major pilgrimage sites like the tombs of Ali and Hussein.
Sunnis have a vague expectation of a future leader, the Mahdi.
Shi'ites believe that an important imam went into concealment hundreds of years ago and continues to live there. He will return as the Mahdi.
The vast majority of Muslims are Sunni.
Yemen, Lebanon and Iran contain significant numbers of Shi'ites.
Iraq is mostly Shi'ite and contain most of the Shi'ite holy sites. Ironically, Iraq has almost always been ruled by a Sunni government from the Turkish Sultans to the Hashemite Kings to the Baath party.
Worship Practices:
The Five Pillars of Islam
1) Confession: "There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the messenger of Allah". This must be recited by all Muslims
2) Prayer
- Muslims must pray five times daily
- After prayer is called, the worshiper must rinse one's hands, feet, eyes and mouth three times as a purification ritual
- Men and wormen pray separately
- They pray side by side and perform ritual moments while silently reciting the Qur'an
3) Fasting
- During the month of Ramadan, Muslims refrain from food and drink between sunrise and sunset
- It is a month of meditation and reflection
4) Alms giving
- Muslims must provide for the poor and needy
- The Zakat is required annual contribution of about 2.5% of one's income
5) Pilgrimage
- All muslims should visit Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime.
Jihad: Holy War
- Sometimes called the 6th pillar
- Literally means "struggle"
- "Greater Jihad" inner struggle of each individual to submit to Allah
- "Lesser Jihad" -outward struggle to defend the Islamic community
- The Qur'an forbids conversion by force
- Physical warfare is legitimate in two cases:
1) To protect an oppressed Muslim minority
2) TO reclaim what was once Islamic territory
Religious Buildings
Islamic places of worship are called mosques
Mosques traditionally have turrets with balconies for the muezzin to call to prayer.
A niche indicating the way to Mecca is in the front of the empty hall of the Mosque.
There is also a separate place for women to pray away from the men.
Sermons are given on Friday afternoons.
Home Practices
Most prayers are said at home.
The Qur'an states that a man may have up to four wives, so long as he treats each of them equally in all respects.
Clothing
Men and women are expected to dress modestly in public.
The full face veil is not a Koranic requirement for women.
Women must keep all but their faces covered while men must keep everything down to their knees and above their elbows covered.
Diet
The Halal is the food laws followed by Muslims.
The halal is similar to the Jewish Kosher laws.
Muslims mustn't eat pork or anything that has come into contact with pork.
Calendar
The Islamic Calendar has 12 months of approximately 29 1/2 days.
The Islamic calendar is 11 days shorter than the Western one.
The calendar began with Muhammad's flight from Mecca to Medina called the hijira in A.D. 622. It is designated 1 A.H (Anno Hegirae).
2000 A.D. roughly coincided with 1421 A.H.
The two major holidays are:
1) Ramadan - the month of fasting
2) Eid-al-Adha pilgrims sacrifice animals outside of Mecca to observe God's gift to Abraham
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Chapter 8 - Islam
Name
The name Islam literally means, "submission".
Muslim is translated as "one who submits to God".
Muhammadism and Mahometism and derivatives should not be used to describe Muslims.
Numbers and Distribution
There are 1.3 billion Muslims worldwide. 5-7 million Muslims live in the U.S.
The largest populations of Muslims are actually in Asia, not the Middle East.
- India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan and Bangladesh.
Symbols
The most common is the crescent moon with a star inside it.
The meaning of the crescent is obscure. Most frequently it is deemed to stand for representing the new moon because many Muslim practices are tied to a lunar calendar.
History
According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad, the founder of Islam, was born in Mecca, in A.D. 570.
Muhammad meditated and received messages from God and passed them to the people. These messages were collected in the Qur'an (Koran).
Muhammad preached that there is only one God and all human beings will be held accountable to him at the last judgment.
The idolatrous religions of the Arabian peninsula and their leaders took offense at Muhammad's message and persecuted the new Muslim community. They fled Mecca.
Muhammad and his followers formed an army in nearby Medina. They returned to Mecca and purged the city of idolatry and claimed it for Islam.
After Muhammad died the Muslim community split over who would be his successor. This is where the Shi'ite and Sunni division took place.
During this time of inner strife, Islam spread rapidly. Over 30 years nearly the entire Middle East and Northern Africa was conquered by Islam.
Islam is not simply a religion, ti is aching that encompasses an entire community, including government.
Scriptures
Only one book contains the complete and true revelation of God, the Qur'an.
Islam recognizes the Law of Moses, the Psalms of David and the Gospels of Jesus as holy books, but they have been corrupted and thus, are unreliable.
Also the Hadith is a collection of several words from Muhammad and stories of his life. The Hadith is not the word of Allah, but it is an authoritative interpretation of the Qur'an.
Major Beliefs
There are Five or Six Essential beliefs in Islam
1) God
- Allah is one God
- He can neither be divided nor multiplied
-Islam rejects polytheism and Christianity's idea of the Trinity
2) Angels and Spirits
- There are beings who were created to serve humans and Allah
- The angel Gabriel presented Muhammad with his first revelation
- The jinn are malicious spirits
- Iblis is the spirit who refused to bow to Adam and became the devil
3) Prophets
- God has designated individuals to be prophets in order to declare his standards
- Muhammad is the "seal of the prophets". He brought the same message, but it has been preserved without corruption or alteration
- Noah, Adam, Abraham and Jesus are some notable prophets recognized by Islam
4) Books
- Some prophets (Moses, Jesus, David and Muhammad) embodied their words in books. Jews and Christians have flawed books, but their devotion to Monotheism, gain them a special standing as "people of the book"
5) Judgment
- all will be judged at the last judgment
- at the final judgment a book of their actions will be placed in every persons' hands by an angel. If it is placed in their left hand they are condemned. If it is placed in their right hand they will spend eternity with Allah in Heaven.
- If you submitted to Allah you will spend eternity in Heaven. Some who have never even heard of Islam will be deemed to have submitted while those who claim to be Muslim may be deemed to have not submitted
- "Allah's judgement will be harshest on hypocrites and lapsed Muslims" (Corduan, 84).
Subgroups
There are two major divisions amongst Muslims:
1) Sunnis
2) Shi'ites
The split is primarily historical, but there are few belief/practice differences as well.
Sunni Muslims followed Abu Bakr, one of Muhammad's fathers-in-law, upon Muhammad's death.
According to the Sunni tradition, Muhammad's spiritual gifts died with him and the Qur'an is the final say on all matters.
The Shi'ite Muslims followed Ali, Muhammad's son-in-law. Ali, according to the Shi'ite tradition, possessed a spiritual endowment from the prophet.
Shi'ites believe that their leaders, the imams, have, if not authority on par with the Qur'an, the final say on interpretation.
Sunni Islam does not have a central authority, is fairly uniform and believe Mecca is the only pilgrimage. The Shi'ite tradition has a hierarchy with 1 imam, 12ish ayatollahs and many local mullahs, is split into further divisions and has other major pilgrimage sites like the tombs of Ali and Hussein.
Sunnis have a vague expectation of a future leader, the Mahdi.
Shi'ites believe that an important imam went into concealment hundreds of years ago and continues to live there. He will return as the Mahdi.
The vast majority of Muslims are Sunni.
Yemen, Lebanon and Iran contain significant numbers of Shi'ites.
Iraq is mostly Shi'ite and contain most of the Shi'ite holy sites. Ironically, Iraq has almost always been ruled by a Sunni government from the Turkish Sultans to the Hashemite Kings to the Baath party.
Worship Practices:
The Five Pillars of Islam
1) Confession: "There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the messenger of Allah". This must be recited by all Muslims
2) Prayer
- Muslims must pray five times daily
- After prayer is called, the worshiper must rinse one's hands, feet, eyes and mouth three times as a purification ritual
- Men and wormen pray separately
- They pray side by side and perform ritual moments while silently reciting the Qur'an
3) Fasting
- During the month of Ramadan, Muslims refrain from food and drink between sunrise and sunset
- It is a month of meditation and reflection
4) Alms giving
- Muslims must provide for the poor and needy
- The Zakat is required annual contribution of about 2.5% of one's income
5) Pilgrimage
- All muslims should visit Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime.
Jihad: Holy War
- Sometimes called the 6th pillar
- Literally means "struggle"
- "Greater Jihad" inner struggle of each individual to submit to Allah
- "Lesser Jihad" -outward struggle to defend the Islamic community
- The Qur'an forbids conversion by force
- Physical warfare is legitimate in two cases:
1) To protect an oppressed Muslim minority
2) TO reclaim what was once Islamic territory
Religious Buildings
Islamic places of worship are called mosques
Mosques traditionally have turrets with balconies for the muezzin to call to prayer.
A niche indicating the way to Mecca is in the front of the empty hall of the Mosque.
There is also a separate place for women to pray away from the men.
Sermons are given on Friday afternoons.
Home Practices
Most prayers are said at home.
The Qur'an states that a man may have up to four wives, so long as he treats each of them equally in all respects.
Clothing
Men and women are expected to dress modestly in public.
The full face veil is not a Koranic requirement for women.
Women must keep all but their faces covered while men must keep everything down to their knees and above their elbows covered.
Diet
The Halal is the food laws followed by Muslims.
The halal is similar to the Jewish Kosher laws.
Muslims mustn't eat pork or anything that has come into contact with pork.
Calendar
The Islamic Calendar has 12 months of approximately 29 1/2 days.
The Islamic calendar is 11 days shorter than the Western one.
The calendar began with Muhammad's flight from Mecca to Medina called the hijira in A.D. 622. It is designated 1 A.H (Anno Hegirae).
2000 A.D. roughly coincided with 1421 A.H.
The two major holidays are:
1) Ramadan - the month of fasting
2) Eid-al-Adha pilgrims sacrifice animals outside of Mecca to observe God's gift to Abraham
Chapter 7 - Pocket Guide to World Religions
(Originally written February 18, 2007 in Book 14)
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 7 - Hinduism
Name
Hinduism is a Western created word to encompass the religious and social system of India.
Hindus refer to their religion as the dharma, which means "the way" or "the religion".
Numbers and Distribution
There are approximately 900 million Hindus worldwide.
The largest numbers of Hindus live in India, including the 300 million "untouchables" who are considered Hindus, but cannot fully participate in the religion.
Symbols
Symbols play an important role in Hinduism.
The most universal symbol is the Om. Om is a sound that has no literal meaning but that is supposed represent the totality of the spiritual universe.
The swastika is also a prevalent symbol in Hinduism, but is not displayed in the West. It represents prosperity and good fortune in Hinduism.
History
Hinduism began as the religion of a group of people migrations to the Indian subcontinent from central Asia. These people are called the Aryans (not to be confused with the racist ideology of Hitler's race). The Aryans migrated around 1500 BC. They worshiped a few gods with animal sacrifice.
The priests of the Aryans were called Brahmins. The Brahmins recorded prayers and sacrificial formulas in books called Vedas. The Brahmins introduced new rules and regulations, altering Hinduism dramatically.
The Caste system developed and the belief in reincarnation became a vital part of Hinduism.
This early form of Hinduism is sometimes referred to as "the way of works" because of its emphasis on the Brahmin ritualistic and legalistic emphasis.
Around the 6th century BC the people reacted against the Brahmin legalism. Buddhism and Jainism emerged out of this reaction, and a new understanding of Hinduism emerged.
"The way of knowledge", the process of finding God within one's self replaced "the way of works". But, "The way of works" and "the way of knowledge" coexist and influence one another.
By the 8th century AD, "the way of devotion" had emerged. This interpretation of Hinduism focuses on one particular god or goddess.
Modern Hinduism blends all three ways but "the way of devotion" is the major influence.
1. Way of Works - based on sacrifices and rituals
2. Way of knowledge - based on finding God within one's self
3. Way of Devotion - based on a person's relationship with a particular deity.
1. Way of works is called Brahmanism or Vedic Hinduism
2. Way of knowledge is called Vedantic Hinduism
3. Way of Devotion is called Bhakti Hinduism
Scriptures
Hinduism has many writings that are organized into two main categories:
1. Shruti - writings "heard" from the gods by holy men (richis)
2. Smriti - writings handed down by tradition
The Smriti contain mostly stories, so average Hindus pay the most attention to them.
The Shruti contain thoughts and beliefs and are usually confined to priests and scholars.
Many Hindu scholars believe that the Scriptures were only written down a few centuries ago and that they were passed down orally for generations.
Shruti:
1) Vedas
2) Brahmanas
3) Sutras
4) Law of Manu
5) Upanishads
Smriti:
1) Mahabharata
2) Bhagavad Gita
3) Ramayana
4) Puranas
Major Beliefs
Hinduism has no mandatory set of beliefs but most agree on certain concepts.
What most Hindus agree on:
1. Life is hard and full of suffering
2. Reincarnation
3. What you come back as is based on what you have done in previous lives. (Law of Karma)
Hinduism, in all its forms, attempts to find a way out of the never-ending cycle of lives, deaths and rebirths.
What many Hindus agree on: ritual obligations
A large number of Hindus consider it important to maintain fundamental rules of life.
Hindu culture is woven into the fabric of Hindu society and Hindus cling to ritual obligations regardless of their religious convictions.
What many Hindus agree on: Vedantic Hinduism
The most important problem of all human beings is that they have forgotten they are living in an unreal world.
The is a true reality: the Brahman.
The Brahman is the spiritual being that is ultimately beyond understanding or description.
If we treat our experiences (maya) of the world as real, we will remain trapped in the cycle of reincarnation. If we realize that deep within ourselves there is a self (atman) that is identical with Brahman we are on the way to escaping the never-ending cycle of reincarnation.
What many Hindus agree on: Bhakti Hinduism
Some Hindus believe that all gods are manifestations of the Brahman, others believe that their specific god or goddess is the supreme being.
There're are 300 million gods in Hinduism, but not all gods are equal in importance.
The are 3 main gods (traditionally)
1) Brahma - creator of the universe
2) Vishnu - the preserver
3) Shiva - the destroyer of the world.
Each of these gods has a female counterpart, a shaky, who brings out his power
1) Brahma - Sarasvati, the goddess of learning
2) Vishnu - Lakshmi, the goddess of fortune
3) Shiva - Parvati, his devoted wife
- Durga, the goddess of death
- Kali, the destroyer of evil
Vishnu is extremely important because he occasionally incarnates himself to restore order. His most prominent incarnations (avatars) include Krishna and Rama.
Gods:
Deity/Function/Depiction
-Brahma, the creator, four heads
-Saraswati, Brahma's wife, goddess of learning, stringed instrument
-Vishnu, preserver, blue, conch shell, discuss, staff
-Lakshmi, Vishnu's wife, goddess of fortune, Blue conch shell
-Shiva, destroyer, trident, three horizontal stripes
-Paravati, Shiva's wife, depicted with Shiva
-Durga, goddess of death, eight or ten arms, long spear, riding a lion
-Kali, destroyer of demons, black grimaced face, skull necklace rides a tiger
-Rama, avatar of Vishnu, ideal king, Green with a large bow
-Krishna, Avatar of Vishnu, cowherd, Dark blue or black with a flute
-Ganesha, son of Shiva, remover of obstacles, Elephant head
-Hanuman, Grand vizier of the monkeys, green monkey, often with Rama
Subgroups
Subgroups can be distinguished by their devotion o a main god. There could be countless subgroups, but there are three main ones:
1) Vishnavites - Vishnu is head god
2) Shaivites - Shiva is head god
3) Shaktites - Kali or Durga is head god.
Some groups of Hinduism practice yoga to liberate one's spirit from their body.
Another way of grouping Hindus is the caste system. While the caste system is a social construct, it has a profound impact on religious life.
Brahmins - Priests
Kshatriyas - Warriors or rulers
Vaishyas - Merchants, landowners
Shudras - workers
Dalits - outcasts
Worship Practices
Worship is performed before statues of gods in the home and temple.
Hindus believe that the god/goddess live in the statue as long as the statue is properly cared for.
The worship is called puja. Puja can be simple at home and last for only a few minutes. It can also be very ornate in temple settings.
Religious buildings
A Hindu temple is often highly decorated and dedicated to a specific deity.
Temples normally have a statue of the main god in the most prominent palace, and a statue of Ganesha to the right of it.
Home Practices
Traditionally, a Hindu house hold has a statue of a god that must be worshipped daily.
Women have a special duty to make pilgrimages for their family.
Women also decorate the front door with Kola diagrams. Kola diagrams are designed made of colored rice to be eaten by ants as an offering to gods and spirits.
Clothing
Little of traditional Indian dress is considered intrinsically religious.
Masks on the face or forehead can be very significant.
Devotees of particular deities will rub ash on their face after worship. Shaivites mark their forehead with three horizontal stripes. Vaishnavites make two vertical lines that converge on the bridge of the nose.
The red spot on the forehead of women is called the bindi. Bindi means "little drop". The Bindi lets the world know that the wearer is a Hindu and a married woman.
Some unmarried girls have a spot on their forehead to protect against the "evil eye".
Diet
Hindus do not eat beef because the cow is considered sacred.
Many Hindus are vegetarians, but not all.
Calendar
Hindus follow a lunar calendar.
Festivals are put on the full full moon, 10 fall in the middle of the moth.
Because of sectarian and regional differences the same festival is celebrated to different gods on a regular basis.
Some important celebrations:
1. Diwali (late October/Early November)
- most important and most widespread of all Hindu holidays
- honors a godess, usually Lakshmi
- sometimes considered New Year's Day
2. Pangal (January)
- primarily a South Indian celebration
- Some times considered a New Year's
- festival of fertility, not devoted to a specific god
- women make kola diagrams, men fly kites
- cows are adorned with garland
3. Taipusam (late January, early February)
- entirely a South Indian holiday
- dedicated to Muruka, the son of Shiva
- devotion expressed through acts of austerity and self-immolation
4. Holi (late February, early March)
- honors Krishna
- honors his pranks played as a youth
- 5 days of high spirits
- on the 5th day people throw buckets of colored water on one another
Every deity has his or her own birthday or day of descent.
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 7 - Hinduism
Name
Hinduism is a Western created word to encompass the religious and social system of India.
Hindus refer to their religion as the dharma, which means "the way" or "the religion".
Numbers and Distribution
There are approximately 900 million Hindus worldwide.
The largest numbers of Hindus live in India, including the 300 million "untouchables" who are considered Hindus, but cannot fully participate in the religion.
Symbols
Symbols play an important role in Hinduism.
The most universal symbol is the Om. Om is a sound that has no literal meaning but that is supposed represent the totality of the spiritual universe.
The swastika is also a prevalent symbol in Hinduism, but is not displayed in the West. It represents prosperity and good fortune in Hinduism.
History
Hinduism began as the religion of a group of people migrations to the Indian subcontinent from central Asia. These people are called the Aryans (not to be confused with the racist ideology of Hitler's race). The Aryans migrated around 1500 BC. They worshiped a few gods with animal sacrifice.
The priests of the Aryans were called Brahmins. The Brahmins recorded prayers and sacrificial formulas in books called Vedas. The Brahmins introduced new rules and regulations, altering Hinduism dramatically.
The Caste system developed and the belief in reincarnation became a vital part of Hinduism.
This early form of Hinduism is sometimes referred to as "the way of works" because of its emphasis on the Brahmin ritualistic and legalistic emphasis.
Around the 6th century BC the people reacted against the Brahmin legalism. Buddhism and Jainism emerged out of this reaction, and a new understanding of Hinduism emerged.
"The way of knowledge", the process of finding God within one's self replaced "the way of works". But, "The way of works" and "the way of knowledge" coexist and influence one another.
By the 8th century AD, "the way of devotion" had emerged. This interpretation of Hinduism focuses on one particular god or goddess.
Modern Hinduism blends all three ways but "the way of devotion" is the major influence.
1. Way of Works - based on sacrifices and rituals
2. Way of knowledge - based on finding God within one's self
3. Way of Devotion - based on a person's relationship with a particular deity.
1. Way of works is called Brahmanism or Vedic Hinduism
2. Way of knowledge is called Vedantic Hinduism
3. Way of Devotion is called Bhakti Hinduism
Scriptures
Hinduism has many writings that are organized into two main categories:
1. Shruti - writings "heard" from the gods by holy men (richis)
2. Smriti - writings handed down by tradition
The Smriti contain mostly stories, so average Hindus pay the most attention to them.
The Shruti contain thoughts and beliefs and are usually confined to priests and scholars.
Many Hindu scholars believe that the Scriptures were only written down a few centuries ago and that they were passed down orally for generations.
Shruti:
1) Vedas
2) Brahmanas
3) Sutras
4) Law of Manu
5) Upanishads
Smriti:
1) Mahabharata
2) Bhagavad Gita
3) Ramayana
4) Puranas
Major Beliefs
Hinduism has no mandatory set of beliefs but most agree on certain concepts.
What most Hindus agree on:
1. Life is hard and full of suffering
2. Reincarnation
3. What you come back as is based on what you have done in previous lives. (Law of Karma)
Hinduism, in all its forms, attempts to find a way out of the never-ending cycle of lives, deaths and rebirths.
What many Hindus agree on: ritual obligations
A large number of Hindus consider it important to maintain fundamental rules of life.
Hindu culture is woven into the fabric of Hindu society and Hindus cling to ritual obligations regardless of their religious convictions.
What many Hindus agree on: Vedantic Hinduism
The most important problem of all human beings is that they have forgotten they are living in an unreal world.
The is a true reality: the Brahman.
The Brahman is the spiritual being that is ultimately beyond understanding or description.
If we treat our experiences (maya) of the world as real, we will remain trapped in the cycle of reincarnation. If we realize that deep within ourselves there is a self (atman) that is identical with Brahman we are on the way to escaping the never-ending cycle of reincarnation.
What many Hindus agree on: Bhakti Hinduism
Some Hindus believe that all gods are manifestations of the Brahman, others believe that their specific god or goddess is the supreme being.
There're are 300 million gods in Hinduism, but not all gods are equal in importance.
The are 3 main gods (traditionally)
1) Brahma - creator of the universe
2) Vishnu - the preserver
3) Shiva - the destroyer of the world.
Each of these gods has a female counterpart, a shaky, who brings out his power
1) Brahma - Sarasvati, the goddess of learning
2) Vishnu - Lakshmi, the goddess of fortune
3) Shiva - Parvati, his devoted wife
- Durga, the goddess of death
- Kali, the destroyer of evil
Vishnu is extremely important because he occasionally incarnates himself to restore order. His most prominent incarnations (avatars) include Krishna and Rama.
Gods:
Deity/Function/Depiction
-Brahma, the creator, four heads
-Saraswati, Brahma's wife, goddess of learning, stringed instrument
-Vishnu, preserver, blue, conch shell, discuss, staff
-Lakshmi, Vishnu's wife, goddess of fortune, Blue conch shell
-Shiva, destroyer, trident, three horizontal stripes
-Paravati, Shiva's wife, depicted with Shiva
-Durga, goddess of death, eight or ten arms, long spear, riding a lion
-Kali, destroyer of demons, black grimaced face, skull necklace rides a tiger
-Rama, avatar of Vishnu, ideal king, Green with a large bow
-Krishna, Avatar of Vishnu, cowherd, Dark blue or black with a flute
-Ganesha, son of Shiva, remover of obstacles, Elephant head
-Hanuman, Grand vizier of the monkeys, green monkey, often with Rama
Subgroups
Subgroups can be distinguished by their devotion o a main god. There could be countless subgroups, but there are three main ones:
1) Vishnavites - Vishnu is head god
2) Shaivites - Shiva is head god
3) Shaktites - Kali or Durga is head god.
Some groups of Hinduism practice yoga to liberate one's spirit from their body.
Another way of grouping Hindus is the caste system. While the caste system is a social construct, it has a profound impact on religious life.
Brahmins - Priests
Kshatriyas - Warriors or rulers
Vaishyas - Merchants, landowners
Shudras - workers
Dalits - outcasts
Worship Practices
Worship is performed before statues of gods in the home and temple.
Hindus believe that the god/goddess live in the statue as long as the statue is properly cared for.
The worship is called puja. Puja can be simple at home and last for only a few minutes. It can also be very ornate in temple settings.
Religious buildings
A Hindu temple is often highly decorated and dedicated to a specific deity.
Temples normally have a statue of the main god in the most prominent palace, and a statue of Ganesha to the right of it.
Home Practices
Traditionally, a Hindu house hold has a statue of a god that must be worshipped daily.
Women have a special duty to make pilgrimages for their family.
Women also decorate the front door with Kola diagrams. Kola diagrams are designed made of colored rice to be eaten by ants as an offering to gods and spirits.
Clothing
Little of traditional Indian dress is considered intrinsically religious.
Masks on the face or forehead can be very significant.
Devotees of particular deities will rub ash on their face after worship. Shaivites mark their forehead with three horizontal stripes. Vaishnavites make two vertical lines that converge on the bridge of the nose.
The red spot on the forehead of women is called the bindi. Bindi means "little drop". The Bindi lets the world know that the wearer is a Hindu and a married woman.
Some unmarried girls have a spot on their forehead to protect against the "evil eye".
Diet
Hindus do not eat beef because the cow is considered sacred.
Many Hindus are vegetarians, but not all.
Calendar
Hindus follow a lunar calendar.
Festivals are put on the full full moon, 10 fall in the middle of the moth.
Because of sectarian and regional differences the same festival is celebrated to different gods on a regular basis.
Some important celebrations:
1. Diwali (late October/Early November)
- most important and most widespread of all Hindu holidays
- honors a godess, usually Lakshmi
- sometimes considered New Year's Day
2. Pangal (January)
- primarily a South Indian celebration
- Some times considered a New Year's
- festival of fertility, not devoted to a specific god
- women make kola diagrams, men fly kites
- cows are adorned with garland
3. Taipusam (late January, early February)
- entirely a South Indian holiday
- dedicated to Muruka, the son of Shiva
- devotion expressed through acts of austerity and self-immolation
4. Holi (late February, early March)
- honors Krishna
- honors his pranks played as a youth
- 5 days of high spirits
- on the 5th day people throw buckets of colored water on one another
Every deity has his or her own birthday or day of descent.
Chapter 6 - Pocket Guide to World Religions
(Originally written February 18, 2007 in Book 14)
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 6 - Daoism
Name
Also spelled Taoism. The name is based on the concept of Dao, which means "The Way".
Taoism means "following the Way".
It is an abstract philosophy and a religion.
Numbers and Distribution
Daoism is considered a part of the combined Chinese religion that includes Confucianism and Buddhism.
250 million practitioners is a rough guess to how many adhere to Daoism.
Symbols
"The Yin and Yang sign represents the two fundamental elements of the universe intertwined with each other" (Corduan, 58).
Yin and Yang
Earth & Heaven
Cold & Hot
Wet & Dry
Passive & Active
Dark & Bright
Mysterious & Clear
Feminine & Masculine
The Yin-Yang represents the coexistence of opposites that complement one another.
The dots show that yin exists in yang and yang exists in yin, in perfect harmony.
Good and Evil are the same as balance and imbalance. Evil only occurs when there is too much yin or too much yang.
The right amount of balance is dependent on the object.
History
As a purely philosophical system Daoism has existed since the 6th century.
The founder of Daoism is stated to be Lao-zi (Lao-Tzu). Lao-zi was roughly a contemporary of Buddha and Confucius.
When Lao-Zi was even older he decided to travel west to India in search of more wisdom. At the border, the gate keeper would not let him leave until he wrote down all of his wisdom. Lao-Zi then wrote the Daodejing (Tao-Te-Ching). He then left China, never to be heard of again.
Taoism slowly developed from an abstract philosophy into a religion. The balance of spiritual forces provided a basis for the religion.
The Daoism religion recognized a large number of gods in a hierarchy similar to Chinese government. The highest god was the Jade Emperor, who rules the entire universe.
Daoism is unique among polytheistic religions because "the idea that the power of the gods becomes available insofar as there is spiritual harmony among people, ancestors and gods" (Corduan, 60).
Scriptures
There are many Daoism writings, but the two most important ones are:
1) The Daodejing by Lao-Zi
- about the universe, language and government
- If the Dao is left alone then balance will be restored and everything will be right. People do not let the Dao work, but try to fix things themselves which makes it worse.
2) The Yijing (I-Ching)
- predates Lao-Zi by centuries
- A guide to fortune telling
- "A fortune teller analyzes a combination of sticks that come in two lengths and thereby uncovers the balance of yin and yang for a particular situation" (Corduan, 61).
Major Beliefs
Fundamental premise: The Dao is the ultimate state of harmony and balance in the universe.
To bring about the Dao is to make sure everything is going well in the realm of gods and ancestors.
Daoism as a religion is usually blended with Buddhism and Confucianism.
There are many gods, arranged by power in a bureaucratic manner. Mine gods govern a village or town. Major gods govern the world.
All beings (humans, gods, ancestors and nature) are linked in a glance. Humans must find the imbalance and remedy the situation.
Humans are quite capable of diagnosing problems and fixing them.
Subgroups
Daoism is not a true organization so there are no subgroups.
Daoism is a philosophy that can be interpreted and applied whenever and wherever.
Worship Practices:
1. Ancestor veneration
- Incense is burnt daily for the deceased. Sometimes feed is offered
2. Fortune telling
- Discerning proper yin and yang is crucial to Daoism
3. Funerals
- Keeping a dead spirit happy is crucial to balance.
- All the funeral rituals must be performed properly to ensure a happy departed spirit. Paper replicas of the deceased belongings are burned to ensure that they will have those things in the after life.
- Even years after death, the living most continually provide for the deceased.
4. Worship of the gods
- The gods are the spiritual rulers of villages, regions and the nation. It is their obligation to provide for their constituents.
- The people under the gods must worship the gods with festivals and temples and rituals to ensure protection and care.
- If the results of worship are not seen, the gods will likely be forgotten or replaced.
5. Feng-Shui
- Feng-Shui is the arrangement of one's space to ensure spiritual harmony and balance.
Religious Buildings
Modern China combines Buddhism and Daoism in one building.
Taoist temples are arranged according to the guidelines of Feng-Shui.
Taoist temples contain:
1. Statues of gods and goddesses that are important to that area.
2. Statues of guardian spirits to scare off evil spirits.
3. Large pots to hold incense sticks called joss sticks.
4. A wall or room with ancestor tablets. A part of the deceased soul remains indwelled in these tablets. Visiting them is maintaining contact with the dead.
5. An area where fortune telling can be done.
6. A table or booth where joss sticks and other paper structure to be burned are sold.
7. A large oven to burn things for the spirits. Usually a drum is attached to the oven so that people can get the attention of the spirits.
Home Practices
The Home must be a center for harmony and balance.
A home must follow the demands of fengshui.
Statues of gods are usually kept in the home. The kitchen god who reports the status of the home to the higher god's every New Year's Day is a statue found in virtually every home.
The most important item in every home is the wall shrine that contains ancestor tablets. Incense is burned and food offerings are made daily to the tablets.
Clothing
Daoism has no clothing regulations.
Diet
There are no food prohibitions in Daoism
Calendar
Taoism follows the Confucian Lunar Calendar
The Hungry Ghost Festival is an important Daoist holiday. A "hungry ghost" is an unsatisfied deceased person. The Hungry Ghost Festival is a time to appease all the hungry ghosts that are freed from hell in the seventh lunar month.
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 6 - Daoism
Name
Also spelled Taoism. The name is based on the concept of Dao, which means "The Way".
Taoism means "following the Way".
It is an abstract philosophy and a religion.
Numbers and Distribution
Daoism is considered a part of the combined Chinese religion that includes Confucianism and Buddhism.
250 million practitioners is a rough guess to how many adhere to Daoism.
Symbols
"The Yin and Yang sign represents the two fundamental elements of the universe intertwined with each other" (Corduan, 58).
Yin and Yang
Earth & Heaven
Cold & Hot
Wet & Dry
Passive & Active
Dark & Bright
Mysterious & Clear
Feminine & Masculine
The Yin-Yang represents the coexistence of opposites that complement one another.
The dots show that yin exists in yang and yang exists in yin, in perfect harmony.
Good and Evil are the same as balance and imbalance. Evil only occurs when there is too much yin or too much yang.
The right amount of balance is dependent on the object.
History
As a purely philosophical system Daoism has existed since the 6th century.
The founder of Daoism is stated to be Lao-zi (Lao-Tzu). Lao-zi was roughly a contemporary of Buddha and Confucius.
When Lao-Zi was even older he decided to travel west to India in search of more wisdom. At the border, the gate keeper would not let him leave until he wrote down all of his wisdom. Lao-Zi then wrote the Daodejing (Tao-Te-Ching). He then left China, never to be heard of again.
Taoism slowly developed from an abstract philosophy into a religion. The balance of spiritual forces provided a basis for the religion.
The Daoism religion recognized a large number of gods in a hierarchy similar to Chinese government. The highest god was the Jade Emperor, who rules the entire universe.
Daoism is unique among polytheistic religions because "the idea that the power of the gods becomes available insofar as there is spiritual harmony among people, ancestors and gods" (Corduan, 60).
Scriptures
There are many Daoism writings, but the two most important ones are:
1) The Daodejing by Lao-Zi
- about the universe, language and government
- If the Dao is left alone then balance will be restored and everything will be right. People do not let the Dao work, but try to fix things themselves which makes it worse.
2) The Yijing (I-Ching)
- predates Lao-Zi by centuries
- A guide to fortune telling
- "A fortune teller analyzes a combination of sticks that come in two lengths and thereby uncovers the balance of yin and yang for a particular situation" (Corduan, 61).
Major Beliefs
Fundamental premise: The Dao is the ultimate state of harmony and balance in the universe.
To bring about the Dao is to make sure everything is going well in the realm of gods and ancestors.
Daoism as a religion is usually blended with Buddhism and Confucianism.
There are many gods, arranged by power in a bureaucratic manner. Mine gods govern a village or town. Major gods govern the world.
All beings (humans, gods, ancestors and nature) are linked in a glance. Humans must find the imbalance and remedy the situation.
Humans are quite capable of diagnosing problems and fixing them.
Subgroups
Daoism is not a true organization so there are no subgroups.
Daoism is a philosophy that can be interpreted and applied whenever and wherever.
Worship Practices:
1. Ancestor veneration
- Incense is burnt daily for the deceased. Sometimes feed is offered
2. Fortune telling
- Discerning proper yin and yang is crucial to Daoism
3. Funerals
- Keeping a dead spirit happy is crucial to balance.
- All the funeral rituals must be performed properly to ensure a happy departed spirit. Paper replicas of the deceased belongings are burned to ensure that they will have those things in the after life.
- Even years after death, the living most continually provide for the deceased.
4. Worship of the gods
- The gods are the spiritual rulers of villages, regions and the nation. It is their obligation to provide for their constituents.
- The people under the gods must worship the gods with festivals and temples and rituals to ensure protection and care.
- If the results of worship are not seen, the gods will likely be forgotten or replaced.
5. Feng-Shui
- Feng-Shui is the arrangement of one's space to ensure spiritual harmony and balance.
Religious Buildings
Modern China combines Buddhism and Daoism in one building.
Taoist temples are arranged according to the guidelines of Feng-Shui.
Taoist temples contain:
1. Statues of gods and goddesses that are important to that area.
2. Statues of guardian spirits to scare off evil spirits.
3. Large pots to hold incense sticks called joss sticks.
4. A wall or room with ancestor tablets. A part of the deceased soul remains indwelled in these tablets. Visiting them is maintaining contact with the dead.
5. An area where fortune telling can be done.
6. A table or booth where joss sticks and other paper structure to be burned are sold.
7. A large oven to burn things for the spirits. Usually a drum is attached to the oven so that people can get the attention of the spirits.
Home Practices
The Home must be a center for harmony and balance.
A home must follow the demands of fengshui.
Statues of gods are usually kept in the home. The kitchen god who reports the status of the home to the higher god's every New Year's Day is a statue found in virtually every home.
The most important item in every home is the wall shrine that contains ancestor tablets. Incense is burned and food offerings are made daily to the tablets.
Clothing
Daoism has no clothing regulations.
Diet
There are no food prohibitions in Daoism
Calendar
Taoism follows the Confucian Lunar Calendar
The Hungry Ghost Festival is an important Daoist holiday. A "hungry ghost" is an unsatisfied deceased person. The Hungry Ghost Festival is a time to appease all the hungry ghosts that are freed from hell in the seventh lunar month.
Chapter 5 - Pocket Guide to World Religions
(Originally written February 18, 2007 in Book 14)
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 5 - Confucianism
Name
Confucianism is named after its founder, Confucius.
Confucianism is often a way of life incorporated with other religions like Daoism and Buddhism.
Numbers and Distribution
Confucianism is not a stand alone religion, so its practitioners are nearly impossible to number.
Symbols
There are no official symbols for Confucianism.
History
Confucius lived in China from 551-479 BC.
Confucius lived in tumultuous times in China.
His father died when he was young, leaving him impoverished.
Through hard work he amazingly rose to the position of advisor to the prince of the province of Lu.
While advisor to the prince, he fell victim to the court's intrigue and spent the last 30 years of his life unemployed. He traveled throughout China his last 30 years and accumulated a vast number of disciples.
His ideas were seen as a way to restore Chinese stability.
Confucius wrote his ideas down, but were blocked by the Qin dynasty. The Han dynasty, which replaced the Qin dynasty, used Confucius' philosophy as the official philosophy of the Chinese Empire.
Confucius the man was venerated after death and became a part of China's long-standing ancestral worship practices.
Confucius' ideals have survived as the structure of Chinese society even until today.
Scriptures
Confucianism venerates all the Confucian classics, but the Analects are the most important.
Major Beliefs
"Confucianism is about how to create a flourishing society" (Corduan, 52).
Confucianism does not promote any supernatural beliefs, but does encourage people to fulfill religious obligations as a part of their moral duties.
Confucianism provides a blueprint for relationships.
Each individual has many roles in a given society. Each role has a virtue attached to it.
The most important virtue in Confucianism is filial piety. Filial piety is maintaining the honor of one's parents. Filial piety is as important in life as it is in death. There are numerous rituals to be performed by children of deceased parents.
Subgroups
There are differences in interpretation of Confucius, but there are no real subgroups in Confucianism.
Worship
There are no gods or salvation in Confucius' teachings.
He saw heaven as being the source of virtue.
Confucianism endorsed ancestor veneration and all its rituals.
Religious Buildings
The Han dynasty built temples to Confucius, but temples to Confucius were replaced by the polytheistic religion Daoism.
Today it is common to find a statue of Confucius in a Chinese temple.
Home Practices
Filial piety is rooted in the homes so the home is important in Confucianism.
The relationships are taught in the home.
Clothing
Confucianism advocates that what one wears should reflect a person's standing in his/her society.
Diet
Food is offered to dead ancestors on a regular basis.
The Qing-Ming festival is a gathering where food is offered to the spirits who in turn consume the essence of the food. The food is then eaten by the gatherers. Not to eat it is a breach of filial piety.
Calendar
Confucianism maintains a traditional Chinese Calendar. It uses a lunar calendar.
The Chinese Calendar began at the onset of the Xia Dynasty, the first Chinese Dynasty. This was in 2698 BC. Thus, the year 2000 AD is year 4698 in China.
Each year is represented by an animal. There are twelve animals:
1) Rooster
2) Dog
3) Pig
4) Rat
5) Ox
6) Tiger
7) Rabbit
8) Dragon
9) Snake
10) Horse
11) Goat
12) Monkey
Chinese New Year, which falls in late January or early February, is the most important holiday.
Confucianism holds that everyone turns one year older on New Year's Day.
The Qing-Ming (spring festival) is the second most important holiday in China. It celebrates the solidarity of the family.
Confucianism has been outwardly eradicated by Westernization and the Communist State. But, Confucius' principles of submission to authority and propriety in relationships still provides the framework for Chinese culture.
Pocket Guide to World Religions
Win Corduan
Chapter 5 - Confucianism
Name
Confucianism is named after its founder, Confucius.
Confucianism is often a way of life incorporated with other religions like Daoism and Buddhism.
Numbers and Distribution
Confucianism is not a stand alone religion, so its practitioners are nearly impossible to number.
Symbols
There are no official symbols for Confucianism.
History
Confucius lived in China from 551-479 BC.
Confucius lived in tumultuous times in China.
His father died when he was young, leaving him impoverished.
Through hard work he amazingly rose to the position of advisor to the prince of the province of Lu.
While advisor to the prince, he fell victim to the court's intrigue and spent the last 30 years of his life unemployed. He traveled throughout China his last 30 years and accumulated a vast number of disciples.
His ideas were seen as a way to restore Chinese stability.
Confucius wrote his ideas down, but were blocked by the Qin dynasty. The Han dynasty, which replaced the Qin dynasty, used Confucius' philosophy as the official philosophy of the Chinese Empire.
Confucius the man was venerated after death and became a part of China's long-standing ancestral worship practices.
Confucius' ideals have survived as the structure of Chinese society even until today.
Scriptures
Confucianism venerates all the Confucian classics, but the Analects are the most important.
Major Beliefs
"Confucianism is about how to create a flourishing society" (Corduan, 52).
Confucianism does not promote any supernatural beliefs, but does encourage people to fulfill religious obligations as a part of their moral duties.
Confucianism provides a blueprint for relationships.
Each individual has many roles in a given society. Each role has a virtue attached to it.
The most important virtue in Confucianism is filial piety. Filial piety is maintaining the honor of one's parents. Filial piety is as important in life as it is in death. There are numerous rituals to be performed by children of deceased parents.
Subgroups
There are differences in interpretation of Confucius, but there are no real subgroups in Confucianism.
Worship
There are no gods or salvation in Confucius' teachings.
He saw heaven as being the source of virtue.
Confucianism endorsed ancestor veneration and all its rituals.
Religious Buildings
The Han dynasty built temples to Confucius, but temples to Confucius were replaced by the polytheistic religion Daoism.
Today it is common to find a statue of Confucius in a Chinese temple.
Home Practices
Filial piety is rooted in the homes so the home is important in Confucianism.
The relationships are taught in the home.
Clothing
Confucianism advocates that what one wears should reflect a person's standing in his/her society.
Diet
Food is offered to dead ancestors on a regular basis.
The Qing-Ming festival is a gathering where food is offered to the spirits who in turn consume the essence of the food. The food is then eaten by the gatherers. Not to eat it is a breach of filial piety.
Calendar
Confucianism maintains a traditional Chinese Calendar. It uses a lunar calendar.
The Chinese Calendar began at the onset of the Xia Dynasty, the first Chinese Dynasty. This was in 2698 BC. Thus, the year 2000 AD is year 4698 in China.
Each year is represented by an animal. There are twelve animals:
1) Rooster
2) Dog
3) Pig
4) Rat
5) Ox
6) Tiger
7) Rabbit
8) Dragon
9) Snake
10) Horse
11) Goat
12) Monkey
Chinese New Year, which falls in late January or early February, is the most important holiday.
Confucianism holds that everyone turns one year older on New Year's Day.
The Qing-Ming (spring festival) is the second most important holiday in China. It celebrates the solidarity of the family.
Confucianism has been outwardly eradicated by Westernization and the Communist State. But, Confucius' principles of submission to authority and propriety in relationships still provides the framework for Chinese culture.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)